Soviet Atomic Energy Vol. 44, No. 2

Body:  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 ISSN 0030.531 X Russian Original Vol. 44, No. 2, February, 1978 August, 1978 SATEAZ 44(2) 111--'224 (1978) SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY ATOMHAH 3HEPIWH (ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA) TRANSLATED FROM RUSSIAN b CONSULTANTS BUREAU, NEW YORK Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 Soviet Atomic Energy is a cover-to-covertranslation of Atomnaya S O ET Energiya, a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. ATOMIC ENERGY. Soviet Atomic Energy is` abstracted or in- dexed in Applied Mechanics Reviews, Chem- ical Abstracts, Engineering Index, INSPEC- Physics Abstracts and Electrical and Elec tronics Abstracts, Current Contents, and, Nuclear Science Abstracts. An`agreement' with the Copyright Agency of the USSR (VAAP) makes available. both advance copies of the Russian journal and original 'glossy photographs and artwork. This serves to decrease the -necessary time lag between publication of the original and publication of the translation and helps to improve the quality of the latter.-The translation began with the first issue of the Russian journal. ? Editorial Board,of Atornnaya Energiya: Associate Editor: N.A. Vlasov A.A. Bochvar N. A. Dollezhal' V. S. Fursov I. N. Golovin, V. F. Kalinin A. K.Krasin? V. V. Matveev M. G. Meshcheryakov V. .B. Shevchenko V.J. Smirnov A. P. Ze f irov Copyright ? 1978, Plenum Publishing Corporation. Soviet Atomic ,Energy partici- pates in,?the program of Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. The appearance of a code line at the bottom of the first,page of an article in this journal indicates the copyright owner's consent that copies of the article may be made for personal or internal use. 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When ordering any volume or particu- lar issue of a Consultants Bureau journal, please specify tile date and, where appli- cable, the volume and issue numbers of the original Russian. The material you will receive will be "a translation of that Russian volume or issue. Subscription . Single Issue: $50 $130 per volume (6 Issues) Single Article: $7.50 2 volumes per'year Prices somewhat higher outside the United States. I J' , CONSULTANTS BUREAU, NEW YORK AND LONDON 227 West 17th Street New York, New York 10011 Published monthly. Second-class postage paid at Jamaica, New York 11431. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY A translation of Atomnaya Energiya August, 1978 Volume 44, Number .2 February, 1978 CONTENTS Engl./Russ. JUBILEES Seventy-Fifth Birthday of A. P. Aleksandrov ..... ...........:....... 111 107 Twentieth Anniversary of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) - I. D. Morokhov .. .............. . ............ _ ........ 115 110 ARTICLES Prospects for the Development of Chemical Technology of Factories of the Nuclear-Power Generation Fuel Cycle - B. N. Laskorin, A. K. Kruglov, D. I. Skorovarov, V. F. Semenov, B. A. Chumachenko, E. A. Filippov, A. M. Babenko, and E. P. Vlasov ...............................12Y ' 118. Nuclear Superheating of Steam, Results and Prospects at the Present Stage B. B. Baturov, G. A. Zvereva, Yu. I. Mityaev, and V. I. Mikhan ........................................... 131 126 The Principal Technical Problems and Prospects for the Creation of Gas-Cooled Fast Reactors with a Power of 1200-1500 MW Using a Dissociating Coolant - A. K. Krasin, V. B. Nesterenko, B. E. Tverkovkin, V. F. Zelenskii, V. A. Naumov, V. P. Gol'tsev, S. D. Kovalev, and L. I. Kolykhan........ 138 131 Physicotechnical Aspects of Nuclear and Chemical Safety of Power Plants with Gas-Cooled Fast N204 Reactors - V. B. Nesterenko, G.. A. Sharovarov, S. D. Kovalev, and V. P. Trubnikov ............................. 144 137 Physical Properties of Fast Power Reactor Fuels and Their Effect on the Fuel Cycle - 0. D. Bakumenko, E. M. Ikhlov, M. Ya.. Kulakovskii, B. G. Romashkin, M. F. Troyanov, and A. G. Tsikunov ............... 147 140 Atmospheric Release of Volatile Fission Products from Operation of Nuclear Power Reactors and Spent Fuel Reprocessing Facilities and Prospects for Extracting the Products - B. Ya.. Galkin, L. I. Gedeonov, N. N. Demidovich, R. I. Lyubtsev, I. V. Petryanov, B. F. Sadovskii, V. N. Sokolov, and A. M. Trofimov .......... ....... .................... 153 145 Problems in Transporting Reprocessed Nuclear Fuel - A. N. Kondrat'ev, Yu.. A. Kosarev, and E. I. Yulikov .... ....... .... .. ...... ... 158 149 BOOK REVIEWS Yu. A. Surkov. Gamma Spectrometry in Space Investigations - Reviewed by Yu. V. Sivintsev ......................... . ............... 163' 154 Development of Methods of Solidification and Burial of Radioactive Waste from Fuel Cycle - V. V. Dolgov, B. S. Kolychev; A. A. Konstantinovich, V. V. Kulichenko, B. V. Nikipelov, A. S. Nikoforov, Yu. P. Martynov, / S. N. Oziraner, V. M. Sedov, and V. G. Shatsillo................... 164 155/ Principal Prerequisites and. Practice of Using Deep Aquifers for Burial of Liquid Radioactive Wastes - V. I. Spitsyn, M. K. Pimenov, V. D. Balukova, A. S. Leontichuk, I. N. Kokorin, F. P. Yudin, and N. A. Rakov.......... 170 161vZ Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 CONTENTS Engl./Russ. DEPOSITED, ARTICLES Calculation of Parameters of Weak-Signal Detection in Mass and Electron :Spectrometers in Pulse-Counting Mode - M. L. Aleksandrov, M. S.. Kobrin, and N. S. Pliss .......................................... . 179 169 Calculation of Parameters of Neutron Thermalization in Lead - Sh. Kenzhebaev 180 169 Thermal Expansion of Uranium Carbide with Additives Imitating Stable Fission Fragments in 8% Burnup of Heavy Atoms - A. A. Ivanov, . V. S. Belevantsev, Z. F. Evkina, V. A. Zelyanin, and S. N. Bashlykov.... 181 170 The 27A1(n, p) 27Mg Cross Section for 14. 9-MeV Neutrons - V. I. Melent'ev and V. V.' Ovechkin......... ............................... 183 171 Interpolation Formulas for Calculating the Integrated Coherent and Incoherent Scattering Cross Sections - O. S. Marenkov and B. G. Komkov ......... 184 172 LETTERS One Error of the Radioisotope Method of Measuring the Continuity of a Two-Phase Flow - V. A. Kratirov, A. N. Kazakov, V. S. Gurevich and - N. A. Kukhin . ? ....... 185 173 Effect of Impurity on Sintering of Uranium Dioxide - V. I. Kushakovskii, B. A. Zhidkov, and A. M. Loktev ....... . ...: .... 188 175, Method of Graphical Calculation of Extraction Process for Systems with Two Extractable Macrocomponents - A. M. Rozen, M. Ya. Zel'venskii, and L. A.. Kasumova .. . ? 190 176 Quantum Yield and Electrons from the Cylindrical Casing of an Isotopic y-Ray Source - R. V. Stavitskii, M. V. Kheteev, G. A. Freiman, I. G. Dyad'kin, V. A. Velizhanin, L. A. Stulova, and E. V. Borisenkova...... 193 178 Efficiency of a and y Radiation in the Formation and Regeneration of El Centers in Quartz - L. T. Rakov and B. M. Moiseev ... .................. . 195 180 Inversion Probes in Gamma-Gamma Methods V. A.. Artsybashev.......... 197 181 Activation of Molybdenum and Tungsten in 'a Cyclotron - I. O. Konstantinov, V. V..Malukhin, N. N. Krasnov, and A. D. Karpin ..... . ....... .. ...................... 200 183 COMECON CHRONICLES Cooperation Diary . .... ............... .. .......... 203 186 BOOK REVIEWS P. Zweifel. Reactor Physics - Reviewed by V. I. Pushkarev .. , , ? ? . ? ? .. , ? ? . 207 188 CONFERENCES AND MEETINGS Session of Section of Physicotechnical Problems of Power Engineering, Academy of Sciences of the USSR - Yu. Klimov ..... ............:......... . 208 189 First All-Union Conference on the Scientific-Engineering Foundations of Waste-Free Production - V. N. Senin .................... .. 209 190 First All-Union Conference on the Analytical Chemistry of Radioactive Elements - B. F. Myasoedov, A. V. Davydov, and N. P. Molochnikova .......... 211 191 Construction of Atomic Power Plant in Finland ........................ 213 193 Sixth Conference on Engineering Aspects of Lasers and Their Application - V. V.. Aleksandrov and V. Yu. Baranov ........................ 215 194 Conference on Radioecology - Yu. B. Kholina ......................... 217 196 Seminar on the Use of Low-Potential Nuclear Heat - Yu. I. Tokarev ......... 219 197 NEW APPARATUS Laboratory Apparatus with J3 Source for Research on Radiation-Chemistry Processes - G. Z. Gochaliev, S. I. Borisova, S. L. Serkova, D. N. Makhalov, and A. I. Yarkin ................. .. . . ... .... 222 199 The Russian press date (podpisano k pechati) of this issue was 1/ 20/ 1978. Publication therefore did not occur prior to this date, but must be assumed to have taken place reasonably soon thereafter. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 February 13, 1978, was the 75th birthday of that eminent Soviet physicist, Academician Anatolii Petrovich Aleksandrov, President of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, and Director of the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy. Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 107-109, February, 1978. 0038-531X/78/4402- 0111$07.50 ?1978 Plenum Publishing Corporation 111 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 A. P. Aleksandrov was born in the town of Tarasche in the Ukraine in the family of a teacher. Upon finishing technical high school in Kiev he worked as an electrician. In 1923 he taught physics and chemistry in school and at the same time studied in the Kiev University Department of Physics and Mathematics, from which he graduated in 1929. His first scientific paper "High-voltage polarization in ceresin," published in 1929, attracted the atten- tion of Academician A. F. -loffe who invited Aleksandrov to the Leningrad Physicotechnical Institute (LFTI). It was here that Aleksandrov became a scientist. In his first years at the LFTI, Aleksandrov worked on dielectrics. . He did research on breakdown in di- electrics and on the properties of polystyrene, a promising new material for electrical and radio engineering. In the mid-1930s the foundations were being laid for a new science, the physics of polymers, In view of this, it became of considerable practical, as. well as scientific, interest to ascertain the electromechanical proper-. ties of polymers. It was precisely this area of research that attracted Aleksandrov most of all. Foreseeing an enormous future for high-molecular compounds, together with his co-workers (and in the case of some studies, in collaboration with P. N. Kobeko) he pursued physical research on polymers. All of the investigations carried out by Aleksandrov during this period are characterized by an endeavor . to extract the maximum practical results from fundamental research. This has been especially clear in his subsequent work. During the Second World War Aleksandrov was in charge of naval work to provide protection for ships against magnetic mines by methods developed before the war in his laboratory. In addition to his immediate co-workers, he was actively assisted in this work by many co-workers from other LFTI laboratories, includ- ing I. V. Kurchatov. Protection for ships by this method made a great contribution to the successful opera- tions of the Soviet navy. It was in this period that the talent of Aleksandrov was forcibly revealed, not only as a scientifist but also as an organizer of scientific-engineering development and design and as a skillful leader in the practical implementation of such developments. A profound knowledge of physics, the ability to see the engineering aspects of a problem and possible ways of solving them, and authority as an attentive, benevolent, but at the same time strict and insistent person are qualities which help Anatolii Petrovich solve major and responsible problems. The year 1943 was noteworthy in the history of science .and technology of our country. That was the year that Soviet physicists began work on a major scientific-engineering problem of the 20th century, that of har- nessing nuclear energy. As is known, Igor' Vasil'evich Kurchatov was in charge of the scientific side of the work. Aleksandrov was involved in the work with his laboratory and soon came to head a large body of scien- tists and engineers. The greatest development of the activities of Aleksandrov has been associated with the application of atomic energy in many areas of the national economy. In'1948, when he was appointed deputy to Kurchatov, Aleksandrov devoted his talent as a scientist and his great experience and energy to the development of reactor. construction. His amazing versatility and erudition have been displayed in reactor development. An outstand- ing physicist, he'has directed and organized the work of designers, technologists, materials scientists, and electrical engineers, and with his brilliant comprehensioniof,all the details he has proposed solutions and evaluated the results. Aleksandrov sees not only the general outline and the principal features of any design, he also sees the fine details. Such an approach gives confidence that the solutions adopted are correct and this is the approach he teaches to others. Choice of clear-cut and feasible problems, sensible organization of research and experimental work, his attraction for designers and industrial organizations in the early stages, and, finally, his enthusiasm enable Aleksandrov to avoid the "submerged rocks" associated with the promotion of scientific advances and to maintain close, fruitful ties with industry. Under his scientific leadership, major scientific-engineering work has been done on the construction of the atomic industry in the USSR. The construction of the first atomic power plants, the development of a series of research reactors (VVR, SM, IGR, etc.) were the first successes on this road. Special mention should be made of the fact that the construction of research reactors in various scientific centers of the country has led to intense development of a number of areas of physics, biology, and chemistry. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 After the death of Kurchatov in 1960 Aleksandrov succeeded him as head of the Institute of Atomic En- ergy. Under Aleksandrov the reliable and economic reactor plants VVER-440 and RBMK-1000 were developed for atomic power plants and are now built in the Soviet Union and abroad. While paying much attention to the development of concrete plants for the first atomic power installa- tions, Aleksandrov clearly saw the prospects of further development of nuclear power and took care that the results of atomic research be introduced on a broad scale in other branches of the national economy. In 1968 at the Seventh World Power Engineering Congress (Moscow) he said that.... "in the long term nuclear power stands out as a power industry of multipurpose complex plants engaged in electricity generation and other forms of production. . .. Clearly, the development and all-round extension of the forms of technology which can be converted to nuclear energy resources is one of the cardinal practical tasks confronting our generation along with the development of fast breeder reactors with a high breeding ratio...." These ideas are being- actively developed at the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy and in other organizations in the form of new energy and technological reactor plants. Aleksandrov was the initiator of the application of atomic energy in shipping. Under his direct guidance and participation, high-quality marine power plants have been developed and built. Atomic icebreakers operat- ing on the most difficult segments of the northern sea route have transformed the strategy and tactics for con- voying ships. The atomic icebreaker Lenin, the world's first atomic-powered surface vessel, went into ser- vice in 1959, and has been used to appreciably extend the shipping season. The atomic icebreaker Arktika, fitted with an improved power plant, has reinforced the successes of the icebreaker Lenin; navigation in the western sector has become almost year-long. In 1977 the Arktika completed its unprecedented voyage to the North Pole in a record short time, thus showing that for our icebreakers there are no unattainable places in the icy seas. The expanse of the scientific interests of Aleksandrov is exceptional and hence the development of many areas of basic and applied research, ranging from thermonuclear fusion to biology, within a single institute is not surprising. Aleksandrov has taken an unflagging interest in the physics of the condensed state, an area of science in which he worked in his youth. This interest is heightened by the fact that the development of atomic science and engineering has confronted solid-state physics with new questions and has at the same time placed in the hands of researchers new equipment and methods for studying the properties of solids. Aleksandrov attentively follows and supports work on solid-state physics both at the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy and at other research organizations of the country. Along with this research, Aleksandrov supports and develops work on the practical application of super- conductivity for the needs of atomic engineering and the national economy as one of the major directions of the present scientific-technological revolution. And here once again one sees the ability of Aleksandrov to com- bine scientific research with development for industry and by his knowledge and persuasion to unite sizeable staffs of scientific, design, and industrial organizations for solving major scientific-engineering problems. While he heads an institute with a huge staff and diversity of scientific-technological subject matter, Aleksandrov looks after not only the construction of plant and the financing of work but, perhaps above all, is concerned about maintaining an atmosphere of goodwill and of enthusiasm for the work. He has succeeded in doing this by virtue of his enormous personal charm and extremely respectful attitude to each employee of the Institute and his work, but, obviously, mainly by arousing enthusiasm for any unknown phenomenon, new problem, or new instrument. To comprehend a new theory, to become aware of new experimental facts, and to examine a different, nontraditional approach to any known problem are all important and interesting to Aleksandrov. Aleksandrov is an eminent specialist who has participated directly in the solution of a multitude of ap- plied problems. He has widely advocated and collaborated in every way in the development of basic research. An inexhaustible curiosity in basic research and his encouragement of such research enabled him to use a new understanding of a physical effect or the ability to measure something to extract a more accurate method of solving an important engineering problem. Aleksandrov rarely observes the official hierarchy when solving scientific-engineering problems. In the evening in his office venerable academicians, as well as junior sci- tific workers and senior and ordinary engineers, have their heads bent over drawings spread out on the floor or over reports and they tell him about the results of an experiment that has just been completed or outline ideas for a new experiment. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 The attention A.leksandrov pays to people is exceptional. No important matter, personal illness, or fatigue could prevent him from immediately coming to the assistance of someone who has fallen ill and regu- larly phoning in the evening to the home of a hospitalized colleague. In 1943 A.leksandrov was elected Corresponding Member and in 1953, Academician to the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. For 15 years Aleksandrov was a member of the Presidium of the Academy of 'Sciences of the USSR and in 1975 he was elected President of the Academy. A.leksandrov has headed the Academy at a time when the importance of scientific research in the life of society, especially a developed socialist society, has been growing steadily, when there has been an extraordinary expansion of the areas of research and an in- crease in the scale of activities of the Academy of Sciences, and a growth of the complexity of the tasks of the Academy as the principal center of basic science and coordinator of scientific work in-the country. With, a clear perception of?the responsibilities and enormous tasks put before Soviet science and the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, A.leksandrov gives paramount attention to the choice of the most promising directions of scientific research, to the concentration of scientific forces and material resources uponthe most important problems of present-day science and current goals of technical progress. Bearing in mind the character of scientific work under modern conditions, A.leksandrov is constantly concerned with the development of the material and technical base of science, improving the level of equip- ment, and automating research. In this work as President of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Aleksandrov has displayed scientific erudition, on the one hand, and a wealth of experience. of work in collaboration with industry, on the other hand. Under the conditions today, when science has become ?a direct productive force, these qualitities of the head of the Academy are extremely important in solving problems of the practical realization of scientific achievements. - An important part of his activities as President concerns the development of science in the republics and in the branches and scientific centers of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, refinement of planning of research and development, and improvement of the administration of all academic scientific and institutions. For meritorious service to the country's science and technology Aleksandrov has been made a Hero of Socialist Labor on three occasions. He has been awarded the Order of Lenin eight times, the Order of the October Revolution, and other orders and metals. Aleksandrov is a Laureate of the Lenin Prize and of State Prizes of the USSR. At the Twenty-Third, Twenty-Fourth, and Twenty-Fifth Congresses of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), A.leksandrov was elected member of the Central Committee of the CPSU. A.leksandrov is a deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 TWENTIETH ANNIVERSARY OF THE INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY (IA.EA.) The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) achieved its 20th anniversary in 1977. The IAEA is an organization, which was founded by a group consisting of 60 countries, under the aegis of the United Nations. The purpose of the IAEA. according to Statute is the achievement of "the more rapid and more widespread utilization of atomic energy for the maintenance of peace, health, and prosperity throughout the whole world, The Agency guarantees that assistance given by it or through its requirement or under its supervision or control would not be used in such a way as to contribute to any military objective" [1]. The highest authority is the General Conference, at which each member-nation of this organization is rep- resented by one delegate. The General Conference regularly, once per year, assembles in session. The Statute provides for the convening of special sessions of the General Conferences according to the require- ments of the majority of member-nations or the Controlling Council. Between sessions the Agency is guided by the Council, consisting of 34 managers. It assembles at times set by them (as a rule, 5 sessions/yr) and is guided in its work by the Statute of the IAEA and the resolutions of the General Conference. As the highest authority, the General Conference discusses any problems specified by the Statute, and also selects the members of the Council of Managers, ratifies the acceptance of countries into membership of the IAEA, considers the annual report of the Council of Mangers, approves the submitted budget, reports of the Council for the United Nations, and also changes of the Statute, etc. All information presented to the General Conference is considered and accepted by the Council of Mana- gers. In addition, the Council appoints a General Director, who is then approved by the General Conference. He is the principal administative person and directs the Agency Secretariat. The IAEA budget is comprised from the obligatory payments of the member-nations which, in 1977, amounted to 37 million dollars, and voluntary payments (amounting in 1977 to 6 million dollars), intended for rendering technical assistance to developing countries. During 20 years, the IAEA. has been transformed into an impressive international forum. Since 1957 the num- ber of member-nations has grown from 60 to 110. In the work of the Executive - the Council of Managers - 34 countries now participate, as against 23 in 1957 and 25 countries in 1963. During this same period, the budget has increased, and also the strength of its personnel.. At present, it amounts to about 1300 persons, of whom approximately one-third are specialists, and the remainder are technical and auxiliary personnel. At the end of September and the beginning of October, 1977, the Twenty-First Jubilee Session of the General Conference of the IAEA took place in Vienna in the headquarters, which had conducted a total of 20 years of activity. The delegates listened with great satisfaction to the welcoming message of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the SSSR, L. I. Brezhnev, in which, in particular, he said: "The problem standing before the International Agency of promoting the widespread utilization of Atomic Energy for maintaining peace, the health of the people and the prosperity of the nations, is close and understandable to us. The Soviet Union actively cooperates and is ready to develop even further cooperation with other coun- tries in the matter of the peaceful utilization of nuclear energy, included within the scope of the IA.EA.. Our country, widely utilizing nuclear energy for constructive purposes, is ready to share its rich experience and scientific-technical knowledge in this field, in the name of the future progress of mankind" [2]. *First Vice-Chairman of the State Committee for the Utilization of Atomic Energy in the Soviet Union. Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 110-117, February, 1978. 0038-531X/78/4402- 0115$07,50 ?1978 Plenum Publishing Corporation 115 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 Dept, of tech-. nical aid and pubis. Devision of tech. assis- tance Pubis. di- vision Secretariat bodies. defining the lines of activity Dept. of tech. operations Service group in the field of peaceful nu- clear explosions Division of nu- clear power gen- eration and re- actors Division of nu- clear safety and protection of the environment Dept. of ad- ministration Bureau of verifi- cation of ac- counts and ad- ministrative- economic servi- ces Budget- finance division Division of external re- lations Dept. of scien- tific research and isotopes Standard- ization section international center of theo- retical physics, Trieste Joint division FAO/IAEA on the utilization of atomic ener- y in the food industry and agriculture Dept. of safe- guards and inspections Assessment of safe- guards ef- fectiveness section Development division Division of sci- entific- techni- cal information General ser- vices divi- sion Translation (jnterpreter) visi n Natural sciences division, Scientific re- search and labo- ratories division Juridicial di- vision IAEA laborato- ries Personnel division Mona lisk labo- ratoryTT First opera- tions di vision Second opera- tions di- vision Data processing division *Under joint supervision of IAEA and UNESCO; twith increased participation of UNESCO and UNEP. Fig. 1. Organizational Structure of the IA EA. Secretariat. Scientific - Technical Activity of IAEA. Over 20 years, the IAEA has carried out major work in the field of the peaceful utilization of atomic energy. For the assistance of member-nations, broad programs have been developed for research, for pro- moting the development of nuclear power generation, exchange of scientific-technical information in the field of nuclear science and technology, the application of nuclear explosions for peaceful purposes, ensuring the safety of the environment, new sources of power are being mastered, such as controlled thermonuclear fusion, etc. The Soviet Union has actively participated in the accomplishment of these programs. The scientific-technical activity of the IAEA includes various programs on the introduction of nuclear energy in the various fields of economics of the countries.of the world [3]: The aim of the IAEA program, conducted jointly with the Food and Agricultural Organizations of the United Nations (FAO), is the use of isotopes and radiations in the food industry and in agriculture. The pro- gram is oriented on the application of nuclear methods for increasing agricultural production, and also for raising the quality of food products and the protection of crops, domestic animals and foodstuffs from harmful Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 TABLE 1. Growth of Power, GW (electri- cal), and Power Generating Reactors 1975 1980 1985 Region capa- reac- apa- reac- capa- reac- city tors city hors city Itors Europe 31,6 103 116,1 207 382,4 509 North America 52,5 77 124,8 149 299 278 Latin America 0,3 1 2,9 5 15,4 24 Africa 3,2 4 Asia and Austra- lia 9,1 21 36,6 56 82,3 109 Total 93,5 202 280,4 417 782,3 924 Countries not possessing nu- 26,9 69 111,7 179 278,7 376 clear weapons insects, sickness and injury. Important results have been obtained already for increasing the fertility of soil, due to the rational introduction of fertilizers and a water cycle, nuclear methods have been established and continue to be developed for determining the protein content in seed cultures, which is extremely important for increasing the quantity and improving the quality of protein by means of mutation induction, mutant selection and the development of methods of selection; genetic, nutrient and agronomic assessment of the mutants has been carried out. This has been accomplished jointly with the World Health Organization (WHO), for promoting the develop- ment of procedures and methods of using radioisotopes in medicine, biology and also for the preservation of the environment. The Physics Program consists of the following divisions: nuclear physics, the use of research reactors, plasma physics and-controlled thermonuclear fusion, industrial application and the chemistry, testing and analysis of materials, the production and industrial application of radioactive sources, nuclear data, atomic and molecular data. One of the most important programs is that of nuclear power generation and reactors. This program in conjunction with the program on nuclear safety and protection of the environment occupies the greatest volume in the scientific-technical activites of the IAEA. The nuclear power generation program covers all aspects of this problem - from the forecasting of eco- nomic questions to the study of improved methods of energy conversion. The program has such divisions as nuclear material resources, surveying assessment, supply and demand; fuel cycle technology, including fuel element technology, reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel and the handling of wastes; study of the regional cen- ters of the nuclear fuel cycle, etc. The program on the Nuclear Safety and Protection of the Environment has its aim in ensuring the safe utilization of nuclear power and the protection of people and the medium from the injurious effects of nuclear radiation from radioactive and nonradioactive effluents from nuclear facilities. Altogether, the work in the establishment of standards of safety, recommendations and guidance, asistance, and service given to the member-nations of the IAEA. on standards of radiation safety are well known to specialists. They are con- sidered mainly as the national standards of safety in many countries of the world, including the Soviet Union. The modes of achievement of the IAEA. programs are very varied: symposia and conferences, active working groups and groups of experts, meetings of specialists, etc. In this connection, the special impor- tance for the future development of world nuclear power generation of the Salzburg Scientific-Technical Con- ference on Nuclear Power Generation and Its Fuel Cycle, held in May 1977, should be mentioned. The con- ference showed that the solution of the immediate and future points of the problem are being approached in dif- ferent ways in the world, which is explained by the special features and requirements of the economics of in- dividual countries. This discussion on the routes and tendencies of the development of nuclear power genera- tion should be continued. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 TABLE 2. , Number of Plants for Repro- cessing Fissile Materials For prod, of fuel from uranium 24 36 For prod, of mixed uranium-plu- 21 26 tonium fuel For enriched uranium .10 For reprocessing spent fuel. 12 The.Information and Technical Services to, member -nations and the Secretariat occupy a special place in the activities of the IAEA. The development of an automated system of collection and distribution of scientific-technical informa- tion (ISIS,system) is a great achievement. The system, created on the initiative of the Soviet Union, started to operate in 1970 and has developed rapidly in recent years. The number of items processed annually has in- creased from 4000 in the first year of operation to 65,000 at the present time. Now the ISIS system is caused by 46 member-nations and 13 international. organizations. The ISIS Atomindex is a unique international refer- ence journal on nuclear science and technology. The IAEA. has available a library with a large stock of specialist literature. It has also connections with national libraries and there is a high rate of exchange of literature according to enquiries from member- nations and the Secretariat. The IAEA carried out a widespread publishing activity and issues the journal "Thermonuclear Fusion," the series "Reviews on Atomic Energy," a monthly Bulletin, and also the proceedings of conferences, sym- posia, etc. The Soviet Union participates actively and directly in the scientific-technical activities of the IAEA, sending its own specialists on scientific-technical' and organizational means,. directing highly qualified scien- tists, specialists and administrators to work in this organization. The Permanent Representation of the Soviet Union at international organizations in Vienna renders great assistance in liaison and cooperation with the IAEA. The participation of the Soviet Union in the work of the IAEA wins high praise from the Secretariat and member-nations. The role, importance and authority of the Soviet Union in the IAEA, undoubtedly has grown, especially over recent years. Technical Assistance to Developing Countries One of the first places in the activities of the IAEA is occupied by the rendering of technical assistance to developing countries, which includes the transmission of technical knowledge and skills in the fields of utili- zation of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, support for efforts toward a more efficient achievement of work in the field of nuclear power generation and ensuring that the transmitted technical skills and knowledge could be applied after rendering this assistance. The modes of the rendering technical assistance are diverse: services of.experts, provision of plant, granting of scholarships, and training of national personnel. Since 1958, 82 countries have utilized the services of 3000 experts and detached specialists. During this period, 20 million dollars worth of plants and materials have been supplied, 3000 scientists, engineers, and administrators have carried out training in more than 180 regional and interregional training establish- ments. In attaching great importance to the rendering of technical .assistance to developing member-nations of the IAEA, the Soviet Union has supplied to these countries at the requests of the Secretariat, plant and ma- terials to the account of its voluntary payments, and has also trained national personnel. From 1969 to 1976, of the total sum of voluntary payments of the Soviet Union of 2.8 million rubles in the national currency of the IAEA, more than 2 million rubles already has been realized. On the account of this payment, 15 scientific-familiarization trips of specialists from developing countries have taken place. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 TABLE 3. Installed Capacity of Nuclear Power Stations, Number of Facilities, and Quantity of Nuclear Materials under Safeguards of the IAEA (on Jan. 1, 1977) 11973 11974 Installed nuclear power station capacity, GW (el.) No. of nuclear power stations Other reactors Facilities for the manufac- ture of fuel elements and for the chemical repro- cessing of fuel Other facilities or zones of material balance Total facilities Plutonium, kg Enriched uranium, tons element isotope Raw material, tons 5 8 10 20 27 36 43 60 107 110 103 120 20 26 29 35 140 254 288 315 365" 4730 6300 9035 12 000 1865 2305 3096 5 000 43 53 66,7 150 3370 3910 4440 6000 From 1977 annual .trimonthly courses on the application of nuclear, methods to agriculture will be held in the K. A. TimiryazevAU-Union Agricultural Academy in Moscow. In 1978-1979, it is planned to organize a course at the Novovoronezh Nuclear Power station on the operation of water-cooled/water-moderated reactors. The possibility is being considered of founding annual courses in Moscow on the application of nuclear methods in medicine. For the first time, a scientific-technical tour has been organized and successfully conducted on safeguards, with a visit to nuclear facilities of the Soviet Union. On the recommendation of the government, the,Soviet delegation declared at the Twenty-First Jubilee Session of the General' Conference 'of the"IAEA. an increase in the voluntary payment of the Soviet Union to the technical assistance fund, in the first place to developing country-participants of the Treaty for the Nonprolif- erationof Nuclear Weapons. This payment may be used for the purchase of Soviet plant, instruments and ma- terials, and also for conducting IAEA educational-familiarization arrangements in the Soviet Union. The effective combination of technical assistance with the necessary control measures will serve for the further consolidation of the policy of nonproliferation of nuclear weapons and, consequently, a more com- plete realization of the problems arising from the IAEA. Statute and the conditions of the Nuclear Weapons Non- proliferation Treaty. The Problem of Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons It should be pointed out, however, that even if the activities of the IAEA. in cooperation with the wide- spread introduction of atomic energy into the peace economics of member-nations of this organization do not prove fruitful, in the modern setting there is no more urgent problem than the cessation of the arms race and disarmament. The IAEA. acknowledges cooperation in the achievement of these aims. At the moment, it is impossible to forget that the energy of the atomic nucleus can be used also as the most destructive weapon which mankind has ever known. Therefore, the efforts undertaken by the IAEA for the prevention of nuclear weapon proliferation acquire special importance. At present, it can be seen with all authenticity that the development of nuclear power generation is pro- ceeding with increasing rates, and an even greater number of countries are included in its orbit. Undoubtedly, its intensive development will allow the greater part of all forms of energy requirement to be ensured and will allow economy in the use of the large quantity of organic raw material for those purposes where its total re- placement is more complicated, mainly for the chemical industry. At the same time, in considering the positive aspects of development, it must not be forgotten that the significant increase of the quantity of fissile materials and the number of countries possessing them increases the potential hazard of using the accumulated nuclear materials for the creation of nuclear weapons. Estimates show that the average doubling time of the world's nuclear power generation capacity in the next 2-3 decades may amount to 5 years, and the installed capacity of nuclear power stations expected by 2000 A. D. may amount to 4. 106 MW (electrical). Even if these development times prove to be low but com- mensurate with the increase of all power generation as a whole, the capacity of nuclear power stations by 2000 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 A. D. will amount to 2. 106 MW (electrical). However, even this minimum estimate shows the considerable scale of its growth [4]. The distribution of capacities and the numbers of nuclear power stations throughout the regions of the world in the forthcoming decade are shown in Table 1. Thus, in 1985 the capacity of nuclear power stations in countries which do not possess nuclear weapons will have increased by a factor of 10, and the number of countries possessing nuclear power will have doubled. The considerable increase of nuclear power -stations leads to an increase of requirements for uranium, which will have increased from 25,000 tons in1975.to 35,000 and 160,000 tons by 1980 and 1985, respectively Significantly, the requirements for enrichment will increase from 13,000-tons of sep. work units/yr in 1985,. to 100,000 tons of sep. work units/yr in 1985; fuel manufacture will increase from 6000 tons in 1975 to 15,000 and 30,000 tons in 1980 and 1985. By 1980, more than 150 tons of plutonium converted to fissile fuel willhave accumulated, and by 1985 this figure will amount to 504 tons. It should be mentioned that the increase in the number of nuclear facilities is not identical in all stages of utilization of nuclear material and its reprocessing. Thus, if the number of nuclear power stations in- creases by more than 200 units by 1980, and by 600 units by 1985, in comparison with 1975, then over this same period only a few new uranium enrichment plants and plants for reprocessing spent fuel will appear (Table 2). L. I. Brezhnev, in the salutory address at the Twenty-First Jubilee Session of the IA.EA. General Con- ference, wrote: "In supporting, the development of the peaceful utilization of atomic energy, the Soviet Union is firmly resolved, together with other governments, to consolidate in every way the international policy of nonproliferation of nuclear weapons. It is essential-to do everything possible in order that the international exchange of nuclear technology, involving in many countries a scientific-technical and industrial nuclear potential, does not become a channel for the proliferation of nuclear weapons. "We cannot shut our eyes to the fact that in the world there will always be powers who would wish to re- ceive in their hands nuclear weapons, in order to threaten nations with this weapon. Therefore, the problem of setting a reliable safeguard on the paths of nuclear weapon proliferation, andfor! preventing the hazard of a nuclear war, remains now just as acute as ever. "In solving this. problem of immediate importance, the International Atomic Energy Agency has played on important role, and we express the hope that the IAEA will apply all efforts to ensure that the atom will serve only the interests of peace. " Future- consolidation of an international policy of nonproliferation, today as never before, is important and is connected directly with the maintenance of peace, safety and reduction of the threat'. of nuclear war. The accelerated development of nuclear power generation, which is becoming one of the principal sources for satisfying the power generation requirements of countries, is related inevitably with the accumulation of large quantities of nuclear materials and, as a consequence, with an increase of the danger of nuclear weapons proliferation. The Soviet Union proceeds from the fact that the development of nuclear power generation in the world must be combined to the fullest extent with consolidation of the nonproliferation policy. All governments who value peace highly, must actively strive for the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons to become a genuinely universal instrument of international nonproliferation politics, en- compassing all governments without exception. Unfortunately, not all countries who possess nuclear weapons, nor all countries with significant nuclear potential, have subscribed to the Treaty, and some of them, as for example the UAR, in fact are opposed to this Treaty and are actively preparing to carry out nuclear tests. The campaign for a new stage of the nuclear arms race: being conducted by certain western circles un- der the catchword of expansion of production of the so-called neutron bomb and other dangerous types of wea- pons, does not assist consolidation of the Treaty for the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons. System of Safeguards During the 20 years of existence of the IAEA., considerable experience of monitoring activities has been built up. A system of legal standards has been worked out, monitoring equipment has been set up, procedures and methods of monitoring have been developed and introduced at many types of nuclear facilities. At the present time, the IAEA. monitors the activity of many nonnuclear countries of the world. This is done com- pletely regularly, because one of the functions of the IAEA., fixed by its Statue, is the implementation of Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 safeguards which have their aim in ensuring "that special fissile or any other materials, services, plant, technical facilities and data, presented by the Agency either according to its requirement or under its super- vision or control, should not be used in such manner as to further study any military purpose, and to extend, according to the requirement of the parties, the use of these safeguards to any two-party or multiparty agree- ment or, according to the requirement of one or other government, to any forms of activity of this government in the field of nuclear energy. " The system of safeguards was formulated for the first time in 1961 in the form of INFCIRC-66 and con- tained monitoring procedures for small experimental reactors. Since then, it has been extended and modernized repeatedly, which has been reflected in other documents. The key stage was the decision of the participating countries of the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons to guarantee to the IAEA the implementation of monitoring functions according to Article III-I of the Treaty, in accordance with the proposals of INFCIRC- 153. Thus, at present, the IAEA. monitors nuclear activity resulting from the agreements concluded on the basis of INFCIRC-153 and INFCIRC-66, Rev. 2. Based on INFCIRC-153, 44 agreements are concluded, of which 21 are with countries which do not possess a significant nuclear activity. Based on INFCIRC-66, Rev. 2, agreements on projects (11) and transfer of safeguards (21) are operative, and also agreements in connection with single-party organization of nuclear activity under safeguard (8). Under the control of the IAEA, there are about 12 tons of plutonium, 5000 tons of enriched uranium and about 6000 tons of raw material (Table 3) [5]. Under the conditions when nuclear power generation in the world is developing and international trade exchange of nuclear materials and plant is expanding, the improvement of IAEA activities in the field of safe- guards is being promoted in the first plan of a number of measures directed at consolidation of the policy of nonproliferation of nuclear weapons. The Soviet Union considers the efficient monitoring of the IAEA as one of the principal premises for widespread international cooperation in the field of the peaceful utilization of atomic energy. The IAEA is entering at present a new stage of its monitoring activity, the characteristic feature of which is a sharp increase of the volume and complexity of monitoring. In connection with this, the problem of the maximum use of all possibilities set out in the system of safeguards arises in all its acuteness. At the basis of the system, as is well known, lies the principle of independent verification. The IAEA. must use this en- tirely in its own right, independently of the extent of the development of registration and monitoring in indivi- dual governments of groups of governments. Moreover, it will be necessary in all countries using IAEA moni- toring, that efficient systems of accounting and control of nuclear materials should be created and operated. The subsequent achievement by the IAEA and by countries of the regulations laid down in the IAEA system of safeguards is a pledge of effective international control in the field of nonproliferation of nuclear weapons. As before, the question of the necessity for radical improvement of operation of the IAEA. monitoring machine is acute. Recently, the Department of Safeguards and Inspection was reorganized. A. second inspec- tion division was set up and a section for assessing the effectiveness of the safeguards, intended to play the leading role in stepping up controls. It is important to strengthen the Department of Qualified Specialists and to raise to a new level the cooperation between its divisions and sections. The necessity for a comprehensive analysis of the activities of the IAEA. control machine has become imminent, and the implementation of long-term and short-term plans for its improvement. This would give the capability of more reasonably approaching a definition of the necessary manpower and financial resources, and would stimulate on a planned basis the development of procedures and methods of control, instruments and plant used in monitoring activities, and their operative introduction into practice, especially at the present time, when the IAEA is approaching achievement of safeguards in a number of large-scale facilities, which are "sensitive" from the point of view of nonproliferation of nuclear weapons. The question of the development of a model of effective safeguards also has been put on the agenda. Due to the increase of volume of monitoring activities of the IAEA, the question of the volume of data received by the IAEA is important. Until recently, processing and analysis of this information received insuf- ficient attention. The creation in the Department of a special division for the processing of information on safeguards, the development and operative introduction of an automated system of data processing, in principle, is of great value for the entire system of control. The formulation of the problem of implementing within the framework of the IAEA a project for an inter- national convention concerning the physical protection of nuclear materials, plant, and transportation is urgent. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 In attaching great importance to the activities of the IAEA in the field of safeguards, the Soviet delega- tion made a statement at the Twenty-First Jubilee Session of the IAEA General Conference about the purpose- ful contribution introduced by the Soviet Union in the implementation of the technical aspects of safeguards in 1978 to the amount of 300,000 rubles in national currency. This contribution may be used, in particular, for conducting training for inspectors at the Novovoronezh nuclear power station, development of technical meth- ods of monitoring at this nuclear power station, and for the organization in the Soviet Union of IAEA confer- ences and courses on safeguards. The Soviet Union, for their part, is prepared to render further assistance to the IAEA in work on the strengthening of the system of safeguards, which is important for peace [6]. It would be desirable to mention that governments who supply nuclear materials, plant, andtechnology should assume a special responsibility. Rigorous safeguards will be necessary, so that international coopera- tion in the field of peaceful utilization does not become a channel for the proliferation of nuclear weapons. This is not a commercial problem, but one of politics and safety. It is well known that a group of 15 supplier- countries of nuclear materials, plant, and technology have implemented guiding principles for nuclear export. At the conference of suppliers held in Sept. 1977 in London, understanding was reached to inform IAEA through its General Director concerning the policy followed by them for nuclear export control. The guiding principles are intended as an obligatory condition for the granting to nonnuclear countries of export services, the official assurance of the government of the recipient-country that the imported nuclear materials, plant, and technology enumerated in the reference list supplied by the exporter-countries will not be used for the creation or production of nuclear explosive devices. The guiding principles require from the recipient assurances for the physical protection of the articles of the references list received, if it accepts the safeguards (monitoring) of the IAEA not only on the transferred items, but also on the materials and plant produced by means of the items received. The guiding principles provide for special IAEA control in the case of export of facilities, plant, and technology for the enrichment of uranium, and reexport regulations, in which cases reexport may be effected only with the agreement of the original exporter and in the same conditions of initial supply, and other regulations including sanctions inthe event of violation by the recipient of the conditions of the guiding principles for nuclear export. In addition to this, the exporters have been obliged to render ac- tive assistance for improving and increasing the effectiveness of the monitoring (control) activities of the IAEA. The task of-intensifying control measures during report will be continued. With regard to the Soviet Union, it will subsequently strive for the acceptance of a principle of -total control as a condition of supply of any materials, plant, and technology included in the agreed reference list. Being a specialized international organization, the IAEA reacts tactfully to the political changes in the world. The scientific-technical direction of this organization is subjected to the influence of these political problems which stand before mankind. An example of this is the activities of the IAEA in consolidating the conditions for the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons, etc. It is important that concern about the assurance of peace on earth and the safety of mankind from a nuclear catastrophe are the initiating elements in the activi- ties of the IAEA, and here the words of the salutory address of L. I. Brezhnev at the Twenty-First Jubilee Session of the IAEA General Conference are pertinent: "The Soviet Union, for its part, will even further render total cooperation to the IAEA inthe achievement of the noble aims, which stand before this authoritative inter- national organization. 1. IAEA Statute, 1963. 2. L. I. Brezhnev, Address to the Participants in the Twenty-First Session of the International Atomic Energy Agency's General Conference [in Russian], Pravda, Sept. 29, 1977. 3. Agency Program in 1977-1982 and Budget in 1977 [in Russian], GC(XX) 567. 4. U. Panitkov, Forecast of World Nuclear Activity, Vienna, IAEA/STR-40 (1974). 5. I. D. Morokhov, R. M. Temirbaev, M. N. Ryzhov, and V. P. Kuchinov. International Safeguards for the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Report to the International Conference onNuclear Power Gener- ation and Its Fuel Cycle [in Russian], Salzburg, May 2-13, 1977, IAEA.-CN-36/340. 6. I. D. Morokhov, Statement of the head of the Soviet delegation in general discussion at the Twenty-First Session of the IAEA General Conference, Sept.27, 1977, Vienna [in Russian], IAEA., GC(XXI)/OP. 194. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 PROSPECTS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY OF FACTORIES OF THE NUCLEAR-POWER GENERATION FUEL CYCLE B. N. Laskorin, A. K. Kruglov, UDC 621.039.54 D. B. A. I. A. M. Skorovarov, V. Chumachenko, Babenko, and F. E. E. Semenov, A. Filippov, P. Vlasov The necessity for the development of the nuclear industry in the Soviet Union [1] is conditioned by the in- creasing demand for power, the continually expanding use of radioactive isotopes for the intensification of tech- nological processes in chemistry, control and automation of the various branches of industry, the use of the achievements of nuclear science and technology in agriculture, medicine, geology, and for controllable contami- nation of the atmosphere caused by concentrated sources of energy. All this is accompanied by an increase of the role of chemical and radiochemical processes in the treatment of natural uranium raw material and the re- generation of spent fuel, in the production of new types of fissile material and in other factories of the nuclear- power generation fuel cycle. Let us consider the achievements and future prospects for the development of these processes. System Analysis and Mathematical Modeling of Production Development In a nuclear-power generating complex, the decisive circuit is that of the fuel cycle, representing an assembly of interrelated different plants. The fuel cycle consists of four stages of the total technological pro- cess, each of which includes one or several plants. The first stage is the manufacture of the nuclear fuel: extraction of uranium or thorium, concentration, production of uranium concentrate and uranium hexafluoride, isotope separation, fuel component manufacture, and fuel elements. The second stage' is the combustion of the nuclear fuel in reactors. The third stage is the cooling of the spent fuel and its transportation to the reprocessing site. The fourth stage is the reprocessing of the spent nuclear fuel (in closed cycles); extraction of valuable components, manufacture of uranium-plutonium fuel, reprocessing and storage of waste. The following plants occur in the structural layout of fuel cycles: structural materials for nuclear power station reactor cores, specialized plant, instruments for monitoring radioactive materials, and also spent fuel-element stor- age and production tailings during isotope separation. In order to determine the prospects in detail of the second alternatives of production development of a nuclear-power generating complex, taking account of new technology and types of reactors, system analysis of the fuel cycle structure is of great importance. System analysis permits one: to establish the mutual effect of the plants entering into the fuel cycle; to show the technicoeconomic significance of each plant from the point of view of the long-term develop- ment of nuclear power generation; to reveal the varied development factors of each plant and to establish their interrelation; to determine the system of limitations when considering different alternatives and to select optimization criteria for production development. Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 118-125, February, 1978. Original article sub- mitted August 11, 1977. 0038-531X/78/4402-012,'3$07.50 ?1978 Plenum Publishing Corporation 123 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 The analysis shows that the multivariability of production development is determined by the type of reac- tor, the form of the nuclear fuel (uranium, thorium, uranium-thorium, uranium-plutonium, etc.), the regen- eration technology of the spent fuel elements, and also the treatment of the natural raw material, the structure of the capacities of the separation plant, which is characterized by the feasibility of using different physico- chemical methods for the separation of uranium isotopes, and other factors. These factors of the alternative development of individual production plants govern the fuel cycles. The choice of alternatives for their implementation is determined by the econimic competitiveness of each alterna- tive, the balanceability of operation of the fuel cycle plants, the supply of raw materials and materials in short supply, and the readiness of industry for ensuring the production of the fuel cycle with the necessary facilities. In order to investigate and optimize the alternatives for the development of the nuclear-power generating fuel cycle and to choose from them the best in different countries, including also the Soviet Union, mathemati- cal models have been developed [2-6]. According to their nature, they are subdivided into optimization and simulation models. The first of these permits an all-round analysis of the effect of various factors in their interrelation in the development of the nuclear-power generation system (taking into account both the inherent special development features of nuclear power generation, and also interrelation with the fuel-power generat- ing economy of the country). By means of simulation models, the effect of individual factors on the develop- ment of nuclear power generation can be investigated. At present, it is advantageous to construct an interrelated set of mathematical models. Such a combina- tion of models makes it possible: to consider the large number of alternatives for the production development of the fuel cycle; to compare acceptable alternatives and, taking into account their limitations, to recommend the best of them according to the chosen critiera; to allow for the large number of influencing factors; to carry out complex and laborious calculations for forecasting and estimating long-term development alternatives; to operatively correct previously made calculations in proportion to the accuracy of the starting data (technological parameters of a different kind, technicoeconomic indices and restrictions, etc.), and to change the production structure; ' to plan effective paths of scientific-technical progress and improvement of the fuel nuclear-power generating cycle. Taking all this into account, it should.be mentioned that for processing in detail of complicated valid decisions for determining the prospects of development of the nuclear-power generation fuel cycle like a large production-economic system, it will be necessary to use methods of program-objective planning and system- mathematical analysis. This approach allows a dynamic model of planning and control to be established in a development process and the introduction of new industrial technology and nuclear reactors, with an assess- ment of the long-term direct and indirect consequences of the solutions used. It will be interesting to consider the prospects of development of certain production plants of the nuclear- power generation fuel cycle, taking account of the achievements of nuclear technology both in the Soviet Union and also abroad. Processing of Uranium Raw Material Forecasts of the development of nuclear power generation indicate a significant increase of capacity during the next decades; because of this, the requirement on uranium increases with every year. Therefore, the importance of bringing into line the scale of possible extraction and processing with the known natural resources increases. In the Soviet Union, the most diverse problems have been solved successfully in the processing of ura- nium rawmaterial and the prevention during processing of contamination of the environment. Theoretical cal- culations, laboratory investigations, semi-industrial tests and industrial practice substantiate the effective application of radiometric concentration to the majority of low-grade uranium ores [7]. Further reduction of the cost of sorting and improvement of the technological indices are possible by the use of new, higher-output separators and the utilization of methods based on the use of the artificial radioactivity of the ores. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 Low-grade, resistant, and complex ores are processed by using autoclave processes. The use of ele- vated temperatures and pressures, together with the cheapest of oxidants (atmospheric oxygen), permits a profitable processing of the ore raw material to be organized, and permits a high uranium extraction to be ob- tained with a reduction of the consumption of reagents (e.g., acids) and a reduction of power costs (steam). Commercially manufactured autoclave equipment provides for carrying out oxidized leaching processes of uranium over a wide range of temperatures, pressures, and reagent concentrations. In recent years, uranium from low-grade ores is being extracted on even greater scales by leaching out the useful component at the site of the ore deposit. The uranium in this case is extracted from the depths to the surface in the form of a solution. Soviet scientists reported for the first time on these investigations at the International Conference on the Processing of Low-Grade Uranium Ores, held in 1966 in Vienna. Underground leaching at present has been fashioned into a self-sustaining chemicotechnological process [8]. A technology has been developed which is intended for the recovery of uranium from hard (massif) rock and from sedimen- tary ores, deposited in stratified conditions (horizontal strata). Underground leaching has permitted the capi- tal costs on production organization to be reduced, the cost of uranium production to be reduced, and the work- ing conditions to be improved considerably. Moreover, the possibility has been given of processing local small-scale ore deposits, to include in the processing compensated ores treated by the usual method of me- chanical extraction, and also deposits lying in complex mining-geological conditions. Experience in industrial operation shows that different low-grade uranium ores can be processed by this method. New possibilities in the processing of low-grade and complex uranium ores are opened up by sorption processes [9]. The irrefutable advantages of these processes are due both to the aggregation state of granular ion-ex- changers, which permit the separation process to be conducted easily, and also to the high exchange capacity of the majority of resin types. This, even at the beginning of the 1950s, permitted sorption processes from pulp to be carried out, which are predominant in the uranium industry of the Soviet Union. The development of a filtrationless sorption method has led to the development of leaching and extraction desorption processes, which intensifies the uranium ore recovery processes and considerably improves the technicoeconomic indices, due to the elimination of laborious operations of repeated filtration and repulping of the filter cakes. The method has made it possible to include lower-grade uranium raw material in the pro- cessing, and simultaneously to separate valuable components: molybdenum, vanadium, rare-earth elements, scandium, and phosphorus [10]. Industrial experience has been built up of sorption from dense pulps up to solid:liquid = 1:1, which has led to an increase of productivity of the operative plants by a factor of 1.5-3, an increase of uranium extrac- tion by 5-10o, an increase of work productivity of the basic workers, and a reduction of the consumption of chemicals, auxiliary materials, electric power and steam by a factor of several. In essence, an efficient technology, continuous in all its links, has been created with total and complex automation of the process, high-productivity equipment of large unit capacity with mechanical and pneumatic mixing for high-density pulp, and also equipment for the continuous regeneration of saturated sorbent. The ionites manufactured in the Soviet Union with weakly acid and strongly basic exchange groups can be used for almost any (including even complex salt) systems. The production of granular ionites with high kinetics properties, sorption capability and a high mechanical strength, has expanded the use of ion-exchange processes. The production of new types of ionites-ampholites has permitted simultaneously the extraction of attendant elements. In the Soviet Union ion-exchange resins have been produced for sorption from pulp and solutions and, especially the production of strongly basic anionites of helium structure AM, AMP, VP-1A, VP-3A, macro- porous AMp, AMPp and VP-lAp, bi- and polyfunctional anionites of the type AM-2B, medium-basic AM-3 and VP-1p, and also extremely promising carboxyl ampholites AMK, AMK-2, VPK and various phosphorus- and phosphorus- nitrogen- containing ionites (ampholites A.FI-5, AFI-7, VPF-1, and VPF-2). These ionites have a high mechanical strength, which ensures. minimum losses of resin under the most rigorous operating conditions [11]. When processing low-grade ores by underground and mound leaching, solutions are obtained with a low uranium content. An even lower uranium content is characteristic for natural and mine water. In order to extract uranium from the large volumes of solutions with a low concentration, an equipment has been designed which makes it possible to carry out the process at a high linear flow-rate of the solutions. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 It is well known that extraction with organic solvents, from the point of view of physical chemistry, is similar to sorption with solid ionites. The most efficient and optimum regions of application of each of these processes has been determined from a comparative assessment. Sorption extraction from pulp usually is com- bined with extraction processing of the. desorption solutions. Depending on the salt content of the solutions and the problem of supply, a suitable extractant can be used. For reextraction, it is most advantageous to obtain a uranium salt directly from the organic phase. With the development of high-capacity equipment,- it has become possible to carry out extraction directly from ore solutions. Two types of extractors, as usual, occupy the predominant position in the equipment lay- out of the processes - mixer-settlers and columns. The main trend of the future improvement of extractors consists in the search for optimum mixing conditions. A considerable reduction of capital and operating costs can be achieved with extraction directly from dense pulps and nonaqueous-leaching. However, these operations have still not emerged from the semi-indus- trial stage and test-rig experiments. New possibilities in hydrometallurgy are being opened up by the creation of processes which combine the advantages of sorption and extraction methods. Sucn methods are the impregnation with organic solvents of porous granules, and desorption of uranium from solid ionites with acids or with neutral extractants. Considerable research has been undertaken by Soviet scientists on the extraction of uranium from natural water with granular sorbents .[12]. In the process of investigation of selective sorbents, more than 400 dif- ferent ionite samples have been tested. The most efficient were found to be certain strongly basic anionites, with a capacity amounting to 2.5-5.3 mg/g. The regenerates, obtained by desorption of the anionites saturated with uranium, are reprocessed by extraction or sorption concentration. The scientific-technical level achieved at the present time will permit the most diverse problems in the field of uranium raw material processing to be solved and will prevent contamination of the environment. Wide possibilities in the inclusion of low-grade uranium-containing raw material in processing are being opened up by the extraction-of uranium as a by-product or as a joint product in combination with other useful components. The Soviet Union has available great production experience in the extraction of uranium and other valuable components from phosphate raw. material, and also in the complex utilization of uranium-molybdenum ores. Isotope Separation At the present time, requirements for enriched uranium are met by gaseous diffusion plants, which are' linked with a large demand on electric power [13]. With the development of nuclear power generation, interest is increasing with the realization of the possibilities of centrifuging, which is characterized by a significantly lower power requirement. The Federal Republic of Germany, Holland, and Great Britain have concluded an agreement on joint cooperation of separation plants with centrifuges. Investigations on the technology of cen- trifuging are being carried out in Japan. The first work on the chemical and ion-exchange separation of uranium isotopes is related to the end of the 1940s. In 1953 a report appeared onthe enrichment of uranium inthe light isotope up to 2.8%by the ion mobility method. The separation of isotopes by the precipitation of oxalates with countercurrent migration is described. Ion-exchange chromatography, carried out by the use of anionites and cationites, occupies a special place (including solutions of phosphorus- and nitrogen-containing complex-forming agents), and also water and or- ganic solutions, including hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric, or chloric acid solutions of uranium (VI), uranium (IV) or their mixture. The isotope separation factor varied from 1.00006 to 1.0004. In the majority of cases, the results of the work on the separation of uranium isotopes are only satisfactory, the latter associated with an insignificant coefficient not exceeding 1.001. It is true that Japanese scientists have achieved an increase of the 235U content over a single cycle by a factor of 1.017, by filtration of a solution through a sulfocationite JRA- 120B in a column of height 1 m and with a cross section of 1 cm2. Fractions enriched in 235U emerged pri- marily from the column [14]. On the whole, sorption processes for uranium isotope separation have been widely investigated in the U.S.A., Yugoslavia, France, and the UAR. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 The kinetics of the electron exchange of 235U and 238U, in the four- and six-valent states is being studied in aqueous or organic solutions (TOA. and TBP*) in the presence of cationites and anionites. The purpose of these investigations is the achievement of a maximum rate of exchange for the subsequent use of suitable sys- tems in ion-exchange fractionation of isotopes. Extraction processes for the separation of uranium isotopes have been less studied. The achievement of a single separation factor of 1.002-1.00006 has been reported. In recent years, scientists in France and other countries have published the results of investigations into the separation of isotopes by extraction, which allow the advisability of further exploration in this field to be judged. Ion-exchange and extraction methods of 235U and 238U separation could play an important role in the crea- tion of a single water cycle for the regeneration of reactor fuel elements of low-enrichment uranium fuel. The solution of the problem of increasing the rate of electron exchange between isotopes in the ionite phase and the development of a high-capacity continuous chromographic process is imminent. The well-known extraction systems do not yet provide acceptable uranium isotope separation factors, although they are characterized by a high speed of attaining equilibrium. Efficient organic complex-forming agents and new principles for the organization of phase flows in the stripping and enrichment lines will be necessary. Since 1970 reports have been appearing about the separation of isotopes by laser. Great attention was paid to this at the Eighth International Conference on Quantum Electronics (San Francisco, 1974) and at the International Conference on Uranium Enrichment Methods (London, 1975). Laser separation of isotopes includes the stages: introduction of the starting material into the system, selective excitation, and extraction. As the starting material, at present the vapor of a mixture of isotopes in atomic and molecular forms is being used; there are indications, however, of the possibility of using start- ing materials in both the liquid and solid states [15]. Isotope separation is effected by laser by means of the selective excitation of the isotopes. In the inter- action of radiation with a mixture of two isotopes, one of them is resonantly excited, while the other remains in the ground state. The excited isotope can be extracted by various physicochemical methods (photon ionization, photodissociation of the molecules, spatial separation of an atomic beam, chemical reactions). The most widely developed method is photon ionization. The extraction of laser-excited isotopes by means of chemical reactions is considered to be the most promising for industrial application. The laser method is characterized by a high separation factor, which permits the same degree of enrich- ment to be achieved with a considerably smaller number of process stages; the degree of enrichment is sharply increased and the content of 235U in the tailings is reduced to 0.03% [16]. In addition, with laser technology, . the required power is proportional to the quantity of separated isotope, and not the starting material, as in the case of the methods being used at present, and therefore it is the least energy-consuming. The power consump- tion in the separation of a single atom of 235U by different methods confirms this: gaseous diffusion, 3000 keV; centrifuge, 300 keV, and laser 100 keV. The economic efficiency of the isotopes of certain metals (zirconium, iron,. etc.) obtained by laser tech- nology, which have a low neutron absorption cross section, for the manufacture of fuel-element claddings should be mentioned; this leads to a significant improvement in the use of neutrons and to a reduction of the requirements on the degree of uranium enrichment. Moreover, 232U and 233U can be separated by laser, which increases the efficiency of the uranium -thorium cycle, as it permits the use of 232U as a radioisotopic source of heat. The industrial achievement of uranium isotope separation by laser. technology is possible by 1985 [17]. Information has appeared on the possibility of commercial laser isotopic separation of plutonium earlier than for uranium isotopes. According to estimates of different researchers, laser technology is the most eco- nomical for the separation of highly radioactive 238Pu from its other isotopes in spent nuclear fuel (the cost of 1 g of high-quality 238Pu is reduced from 1300 to 125-250 dollars) [18]. 238Pu is used as a compact energy source, e.g., for satellites and cardiological devices. The introduction into production of laser technology will permit not only the utilization of uranium in ther- mal reactors to be improved, but will also permit optimization of the isotopic content of the fuel of breeder- reactors. Thus, 240Pu undoubtedly can be more usefully used in breeder-reactors than in thermal reactors. *Trioctylamine and tributylphosphate. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 In investigations in this direction, great attention has been paid to consideration and comparison of the various technological factors which determine the quality of the pelleted cores of uranium oxide, and discus- sion of methods of producing and using granulated oxide fuel in vibropacked fuel elements [19]. Thermal reactors of nuclear power stations, operating on enriched (2-4%) uranium, usefully use only - 1% of the required natural uranium.. Therefore, in order to increase the utilization of natural uranium in the period preceding the bringing into operation of fast reactors, there is considerable interest in the conver- sion of thermal reactors partially to a plutonium fuel cycle, which provides for the repeated utilization of plu- ?toniumbasedon a mixed uranium-plutonium fuel. Numerous investigations of the technological and economic aspects of this process [20-26] have shown promise for the development of a cycle with this fuel in thermal reactors: In the Soviet Union, as in other countries, investigations are being carried out on the design of fuel ele- ments based on uranium-plutonium fuel for fast reactors [3, 27], including experiments on the irradiation of these fuel elements up to high burnups in the reactor [28]. Different technological schemes for obtaining a mixed oxide fuel for fast reactors are being analyzed. In connection with the development of high-temperature, gas-cooled reactors and fast reactors, carbide, nitride, phosphide and other fuel compositions have been investigated [29, 30]. Many papers are devoted to the study of the physicomechanical, radiation, thermodynamic and other properties of these refractory uranium and plutonium compounds. In the investigations, an important place is being assigned to the manufacture of fuel elements based on microparticles (uranium dioxide or dicarbide) with multilayered protective coatings of graphite (of different density) and silicon carbide. The microfuel elements, when inserted in a graphite matrix, are grouped into elements of different geometry (rods, plates, and spheres) [30], and are characterized by a high degree of fission product retention (up to 1300-1400?C) [31]. The buildup at present of experience in the technology. of manufacture of microfuel elements with coat- ings makes it possible even now to obtain coolant gas temperatures in nuclear reactors at 1000?C and some- what higher. The production technology of microfuel elements is being advanced continuously. Although at the present-day stage of their production they are coating more than rod-type fuel elements, there is a basis for hoping that future improvement in the, technology of manufacture of coated particles will bring their cost near to the cost of fuel-element rods. This permits microfuel elements with coatings to be considered as ex- tremely promising fuel for future nuclear power stations. Carbonitride fuel is considered to be the most promising for fast reactors. Possibilities are being de- veloped for improving the technology for the production of carbides from oxides, and the design of continuous technological processes for obtaining carbonitride fuel, including also in granulated form, is promising. Regeneration of Spent Fuel In the nuclear fuel cycle, its regeneration is one of the most complex and most important technical prob- lems. Regeneration remains one of the tightest points in the fuel cycle, from the point of view of guaranteeing production capacities essential for satisfying the requirements in the bulk production of fuel for nuclear power stations. The industrial method of reprocessing the fuel from thermal reactors, which is unique in world practice, independently of its composition and degree of irradiation, is the continuous counterflow extraction of uranium and plutonium with solutions of tributylphosphate into diluents. The differences in the individual extraction schemes consist in the number of cycles of extraction purification, in the separation of uranium and plutonium in the first or second extraction cycle, in the method of separation, operations for the intercycle treatment of the uranium solutions, the presence of a nodal point in the final purification of the uranium (on silica gel, titanium phosphate, etc.), methods of concentration and refining of the plutonium. The number of extraction cycles depends on the activity of the starting solution, which is determined by the type of fuel, depth of burnup, and cooling time. With approximately equal conditions, the decisive factor is the level of development of technology in a given factory, consisting in the correct choice of the optimum influence of factors which affect purification from fission products, such as the degree of saturation of the ex- tractant with uranium, the acidity of the eluted solutions, temperature, the use of complexing agents, time of contact between phases in the extraction plants, chemical and radiation stability of the extractant and diluent, and the removal of certain fission products in preparatory operations. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 Technicoeconomic requirements are met most completely by extraction schemes which ensure the follow- ing basic indices [32]: Purification factor: uranium from plutonium .... ....... ................ 107 plutonium from uranium ........................... 106 uranium from fission products ....................... 107 in the first cycle ............ ................ ... 2 ? 104 in the second cycle. ........... ................ 5. 102 plutonium from fission products ...................... 10$ in the first cycle ....... ............... ....... 2- 104 in the second cycle .............................. 2. 103 during anion exchange ............................ 3 Extraction of uranium and plutonium, % ............ . . .. . . . 99.9 Degree of regeneration, % nitric acid . .......................... ...... ... 95 extractant ..... ................. ............. 99.7 Nonaqueous methods of regeneration of spent nuclear fuel (sublimation, pyrometallurgical processes, etc.), although quite well studied, at present have not reached the stage of industrial application. Processes combining both aqueous and nonaqueous methods, e.g., the aqua-fluor-process, have proved to be interesting. The most important difference in the known variations of the process consists in the pre- cipitation and separation of the valuable components. The aqua-fluor-process, with the extraction cycle for the combined extraction of the actinides into the organic phase and their purification from fission products at the head of the technological scheme, has the advantage over other alternatives [33]. The preliminary separa- tion of the fission fragment elements from uranium and the transuranic elements considerably simplifies the direction and control of the entire process. Control is simplified in the operations for correcting and stabiliz- ing the valence forms of plutonium and neptunium, and the solution of problems of the volatility of ruthenium in the zone of dehydration of the uranium product after removal from it of plutonium and neptunium is not elimi- nated, but is considerably facilitated. There is no need in the plant for any additional measures due to the buildup in the fluoride and separation zones of fluorides of the main mass of fission products and the origina- tion of heat release as a consequence. The fission products are removed in the aqueous raffinate, which can be subjected to direct thermal concentration. The total purification factor from fission product elements in the extraction cycle amounts to 103-106. The aqua-fluor-process permits spent nuclear fuel of any type to be regenerated: metallic (uranium, plutonium, thorium, or their alloys), oxides, carbides, nitrides, silicides, etc. However, the prospects for its industrial utilization are doubtful, because it is inferior to extraction methods in its technological indices and it leads to the formation of additional solid radioactive wastes. In connection with the planned program of nuclear power generation development, the Soviet Union has worked out the principles for locating the establishments for regenerating the spent fuel from nuclear power stations, storage and transportation of the burnt fuel elements, and protection of the environment [34]. Tech- nological schemes for the combined regeneration of spent fuel elements from nuclear power stations-with ther- mal and fast reactors provide for the use of extraction [34, 35] and sorption operations [36] during regeneration of uranium, plutonium, and also neptunium, americium, and other valuable elements. In this case, consider- able attention is being paid to the dissolution, radiation chemistry of aqueous and organic solutions, extraction and ion-exchange separation of macroquantities of plutonium and uranium, and the use of water-soluble neutron absorbers. Extraction processes have been studied for the extraction, separation, and purification of uranium, plu- tonium, and neptunium in different valence states, using tertiary aliphatic phosphine and arsine oxides [37-39], amides of carbonaeous and phosphoric acids, phosphazo compounds [40], and phosphazines [41]. Thus, the investigation of the extraction capability of normal and isomeric tertiary aliphatic esters of phosphoric acid showed a higher chemical stability of tri-isobutylphosphate, a thermoselectivity of trialkylphosphates in the extraction of uranium and the transuranic elements from nitric acid solutions, and an inversion of the reaction capability of the transuranic elements in extraction equilibrium states [42]. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 As a result of a number of improvements, it became possible to achieve high indices in aqueous pro- cesses of spent fuel regeneration. Suffice to say, that in a single extraction cycle for regenerating the fuel elements of water-cooled/water-moderated power reactors, almost the complete separation of uranium, plu- tonium, and neptunium has been achieved, and the purification factor of uranium from fission products amounted to 5. 105-106. The fluoride method has been improved considerably, which was demonstrated by the experimental re- generation of the spent uranium fuel from the BOR-60 core with a burnup in excess of 101/o, and a cooling time of 3-6 months. Stripping of the.BOR-60 and BR-5 fuel with alloyed cladding has been carried out; the distribu- tion of uranium, plutonium,-and fission product elements throughout the plant of the technological circuit has been studied. However, despite this, -the unique methods-of regeneration that have received widespread recognition are extraction using a system based on tri-n-butylphosphate..:(pyrex-process) and sorption based on strongly basic anionites in the refining. The main problem at present is the further increase of the economy and effectiveness of technological schemes of operating, under-construction, and planned factories. Scientific-research development should be directed at increasing the purification of the valuable elements from fission products, the choice of the opti- mum ratio between extraction and sorption operations during regeneration, determination of the resources of the possible operation of extraction and sorption systems without their replacement or regeneration, and also on increasing the purification of plutonium and neptunium in the final refining operations and the use of fire, explosion, and nuclear safety systems. The latter is especially important, since emergency situations [43] in the majority of cases have been determined by the properties of the extraction and sorption systems in opera- tion. 1. Data from the Twenty-Fifth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union [in Russian], Politiz- dat, Moscow (1976). 2. 3. 4. N. A. Dollezhal' et al., At. Energ., 31, No.3, 187 (1971). M. P. Dergachev et al., At. Energ., 43, No. 5, 365 (1977). V. F. Semenov et al., in: Handling of Nuclear Information. Proceedings of Symposium, Vienna, IAEA, 279 (1970). 5. V. V. Batov and Yu. I. Koryakin, Economics of Nuclear Power Generation [in Russian], Atomizdat, Moscow (1969). 6. V. N. Bobolovich, At. Tekh. Rubezhom, No. 3, 3 (1974). 7. M. L. Skrinichenko et al., Report at the International Conference of IAEA on Nuclear Power Generation and Its Fuel Cycle [in Russian], Salzburg, May 2-13, 1977, IAEA=CN-36/321. 8. A. P. Zefirov et al., Fourth Geneva Conference, Soviet Report No. 459 [in Russian] (1971). 9. G. A. Kovda, B. N. Laskorin, and B. V. Nevskii, in: Soviet Nuclear Science and Technology [in Rus- sian], Atomizdat, Moscow (1967). 10. B. N. Laskorin et al. , At. Energ., 43, No. 6, 477 (1977). _ 11. B. N. Laskorin et.al., At. Energ., 43, No. 6, 472 (1977). 12. B. N. Laskorin, Tsvetnye Met., No.8, 15 (1975). 13. K. Khigasi, Uranium Enrichment, Short translation into Russian from Japanese, Atomizdat, Moscow (1976). 14. B. N. Laskorin et al., Usp. Khim., No. 5, 761 (1975). 15. A. A. Sazykin et al., At. Tekh. Rubezhom, No. 3, 19 (1977). 16. Sci. News, 105, No.25, 396 (1974). 17. Nucl. Week, 15, No. 44, 2 (1974). - 18. Laser Focus, 12, No. 14, 26 (1976). 19. F. T. Reshetnikov, At. Energ., 43, No. 5, 408 (1977). 20. D. Deonigi, Nucl. Technol. , 18, No. 2, 80 (1973).. 21. D. Brite, Nucl. Technol., 18, No.2, 87 (1973). 22. Energia Nucl., 15, No. 1, 60 (1973). - 23. R. Smith et al., Nucl. Technol., 18., No. 5, 97 (1973). 24. C. Brown et al., Nucl. Technol., 18, No. 5, 109 (1973). 25. V. M. Abramov et al., At. Energ., 36, No.2, 113 (1974). Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 26. V. M. Abramov et al., At. Energ., 36, No. 3, 163 (1974). 27. A. K. Kruglov, At. Energ., 40, No.2, 103 (1976). 28. I. S. Golovnin, At. Energ., 43, No. 5, 412 (1977). 29. T. S. Men'shikova et al. , Fourth Geneva Conference, Soviet Report No. 454 [in Russian] (1971). 30. V. Ya. Novikov et al., At. Tekh. Rubezhom, No. 6, 14 (1974). 31. N. A. Dollezhal' andYu.I. Koryakin, At. Energ., 40, No.2, 133 (1976). 32. Plutonium, Handbook, O. Vik (editor) [in Russian], Atomizdat, Moscow (1971). 33. O. Erlandson and B. Judson, U.S.A., Patent No. 3374068 (1968). 34. V. V. Fomin et al., At. Energ., 43, No. 6, 481 (1976). 35. P. I. Ivanov et al., Report at the International Conference on Nuclear Power Generation and Its Fuel Cycle [in Russian], Salzburg, May 2-13, 1977, IA.EA CN-36/318. 36. V. I. Anisimov et al., At. Energ., 42, No. 3, 191 (1977). 37. B. N. Laskorin et al., Fourth Geneva Conference 1971, Soviet Report No. 443 [in Russian]. 38. B. Laskorin et al., J. Radioanal. Chem., 21, 65 (1974). 39. B. N. Laskorin et al., At. Energ., 28, No. 5, 383 (1970). 40. D. I. Skorovarov et al., Radiochemistry. Abstracts of Reports No. 1 [in Russian], Nauka Moscow (1975) , , p. 246. 41. D. I. Skorovarov et al., Radiokhimiya, 18, No. 1, 29 (1976). 42. E. A. Filippov et al., Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 234, No. 1, 117 (1977). 43. F. Mi lest, Isotopes Radia. Technol., 6, No. 4, 428 (1969). NUCLEAR SUPERHEATING OF STEAM, RESULTS AND PROSPECTS AT THE PRESENT STAGE B. B. Baturov, G. A. Zvereva, Yu. I. Mityaev, and V. I. Mikhan Testing of the extended operation of the superheating channels (SC) of the Beloyarskaya Atomic Electric Power Plant (BAEPP) has shown convincingly the economy of nuclear superheating of steam. The channels being operated at the BAEPP with a steam temperature up to 565?C at the exit confirmed their high reliability with a fuel depletion of 35 kg/ton and a calendar term of service of 6-7 years. These data allow acceptable economy to be obtained for an atomic electric power plant (AEPP) in comparison with a thermal electric power plant (TEPP), notwithstanding the relatively large number of neutron absorbers in the active zone. The use of SC with fuel-element rods in which the amount of steel per unit mass of uranium is reduced but the catalyst is excluded from the fuel composition permits improving the engineering-economic charac- teristics of the channel reactor when nuclear superheating of steam is produced in it. The results of the operation of the AEPP have been supplied in a report, and the prospects for nuclear superheating have been discussed as an example of the sectional-modular high-power reactor (RBMKP), in the design of which problems of this type in energy reactor construction, which is important from the standpoint of saving uranium and significant reduction of thermal discharge, have been solved most completely. The idea of obtaining superheated steam directly in a nuclear reactor attracted attention in the very first stages of energy reactor development. Already in 1950 during discussion of possible alternatives to the reactor of the first AE PP in the world (Obninsk) an alternative with nuclear superheating of steam was considered [1], but it was postponed as technically insufficiently prepared. The successful start-up in 1954 and operational test of the reactor of the first AEPP served as the basis for realization of the idea of nuclear superheating of steam having high parameters in the most powerful energy reactors. Great interest in nuclear superheating was exhibited in the USA, West Germany, England, Sweden, and other countries; however, the long-term test of the operation of the I. V. Kurchatov BAEPP is the most impressive in the industrial sense. Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 126-131, February, 1978. 0038-531X/78/4402- 0131$07.50 ?1978 Plenum Publishing Corporation 131 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 Fig. 2 Fig. 1. Arrangement of the fuel channels in a (a) circular and (b) rectangular active zone: 1, 2) evaporative and superheating sections; 3) reflector units. Fig. 2. Engineering layout of the unit: 1) reactor; 2) evaporative channel; 3) superheat- ing channel; 4) separator; 5) turbine unit; 6) condenser; 7) condensing pump; 8) conden- sation purifier; 9) low-pressure preheater; 10) deaerator; 11) feed pump; 12) high-pres- sure preheater; 13) superheating regulator; and 14) circulation pump. The most suitable reactor in the constructional sense for obtaining high-parameter superheated steam is the channel-type, in which the separate organization of the evaporative and superheating zones, which should in the general case have different physicostructural characteristics and operating properties, is solved more simply in comparison with reactor vessels. These zones should provide, in particular, the necessary ratio of power to evaporation and steam superheating. Nuclear superheating in connection with the use'of a single-circuit layout with direct supply of steam to a turbine and the operation of thermomechanical equipment on active steam determined the advisability of the use of tubular-type fuel elements as a first step in reactors with nuclear superheating; such elements have already shown reliability in the operation of the reactor of the first AEPP. The standard parameters of traditional power engineering for steam were selected, viz., 510?C and 90 kgfkm2. Construction of the channel-type water-graphite reactor which was adopted for design studies corres- ponded to the greatest extent to the problem posed, with the past experience and the possible outlook taken into account. Peculiarities of Nuclear Superheating of Steam. Nuclear superheating of steam has a number of positive qualities. Nuclear superheating, together with the. possibility of the use of standard thermomechanical equip- ment, provides a high thermodynamic efficiency to a facility, which lowers the consumption of nuclear fuel and the discharge of heat per unit of generated electrical energy and reduces the thermal emission into the environment. The latter fact takes on especially important meaning in connection with a significant increase in the total energy production and an increase in the concentration of AEPP in industrially developed regions, in particular in connection with estimating the possible ecological consequences resulting from the effect of the heat discharge on the temperature conditions of the environment. This effect is still difficult to measure in financial terms, but its significance increases in proportion to the growth of the energy supply, and it is impossible to disregard it: The choice of a water-graphite channel reactor permits providing: freedom of installation in the reactor of fuel channels of various purposes and differentiated action on the physical and heat-engineering characteristics of the active zone (Fig. 1); Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 0 1,9 V 49 12,2 143 18,4 21,4 24,5 27,6 30.2 33.8 MW ? days/channel Fig. 3. State of the steam-superheating channels of the second unit on Jan. 1, 1976: 1) channels operating in the reactor; 2) channels removed from the reactor due to the absence of reactivity; and 3) channels removed from the reactor for defects in the fuel elements. through-channel overloading for more effective use of the fuel in the case of a sufficiently good equaliza- tion of power distribution throughout the active zone; the use of various designs of the fuel (removable and nonremovable) channels, sleeve and rod fuel ele- ments (see Fig. 1); the use of a progressive single-circuit engineering layout with the input of steam from the reactor to a turbine (Fig. 2); and enlargement of the individual power capacities of reactors on the basis of standard elements without fundamental restrictions from above both from technical reasons and from the point of view of safety. The operating possibilities of this type of reactor are distinguished by great flexibility. The output of a reactor with nuclear superheating of steam into the energy cycle can be accomplished without the use of out- side heat sources. The existing objective tendency towards reconsolidation of the energy supply diagram can increase the requirements on the adjustability of the energy units. The engineering and economic characteristics of reac- tors with nuclear superheating permit considering them as potential semipeak energy sources [2]. The introduction of nuclear superheating is positively expressed in the characteristics of the heat engi- neering portion of the unit, since the reliability of turbine operation is increased due to the elimination of the possibility of moist steam entering it. In this connection the layout of the turbine unit is also simplified due to rejection of intermediate separators and superheaters. The use of high-speed turbines (3000 rpm) in connec- tion with the enlargement of the individual capacities of the turbine units to 1.2-2.0 million kW, as well as tapping the heat for central heating and industrial needs, has turned out to be theoretically possible. Principal Problems of Organization of Nuclear Superheating of Steam. The most important scientific- engineering problem in creating a reactor with nuclear superheating is the development of fuel elements which would permit producing steam at a temperature of 500-540?C, a pressure of 90-130 kgf/cm2, and thermal loads up to 1 ? 106 kcal/m2 ? h with acceptable neutron-physics characteristics and an economically practical depletion of the uranium. The physical problems of creating such a reactor, in addition to providing for uranium depletion (when significant unproductive neutron absorption in the SC is present) acceptable on economic grounds, are included in the maintenance of an equalized energy distribution and the ratio of capacities for producing and superheating steam necessary for a thermal balance. In this connection the physical characteristics of the reactor should provide for safety of the transition and start-up modes, in particular, an acceptable reactivity effect upon con- version of a SC from water cooling to steam, and vice versa. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 OL .,CE- 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 Temp. of superheated steam, ?C Fig. 4. Temperature of steam at output from the superheating channels: Date of measurement Electrical capacity of the unit, MW Pressure in steam pipe, kgf/cmZ Average superheating temp., ?C a b C Feb. 27, 1975 Aug. 2, 1972 Sept: 17, 1972 196 170 172 75 73 72 515 496 497 An important problem is providing for reliable operation of the reactor, fuel channels, and fuel ele- 'ments in steady-state and transitional operational modes under variable-load conditions as well as for accept- able reliability of the main subassemblies and systems of the reactor based on a 20-30-yr useful life. Nuclear superheating affiliated with the single-circuit thermal layout has determined the high level of requirements on provision of radiation safety for the staff, in particular, for the machine room when the tur- bines are operating on radioactive steam. I. V. Kurchatov Beloyarskaya AEPP (BAEPP). The problems noted for nuclear superheating have es- sentially been successfully solved in the designs and upon the construction of the first reactors of the BAEPP. The experimental checking of the most important elements of the reactor, physical characteristics, ther- mal hydraulic processes, and transitional engineering conditions was conducted on special test stands and in the experimental loops of the Obninsk AEPP [1, 3]. The powering-up of the first reactor with nuclear superheating and an electrical capacity of 100 MW oc- curred in 1964, followed in 1967 by a second reactor with a capacity of 200 MW; the gross efficiency of both units was 37-38%. The reactors are identical in the structural sense, and they differ only in the capacity and the external engineering layout. Up to now the total working time of both installations amounts to - 21 reactor- years with an acceptable installed capacity usage coefficient of 62-77% and time coefficient of .75-91% [4]. One should note that the supplying of steam (20 Gcal/h) for heating a settlement located several kilometers from the power station is accomplished at the BAEPP along with the production of electrical energy. Results of Operation of the BAEPP. The experience of extended operation of industrial reactors with nu- clear superheating of steam is unique, and the data accumulated during their operation are the basis for crea- tion of the next generation of reactors. Let us note the main results of the operation of the BA.EPP,reactors-. Replaceable SC are used in the BAEPP in whose fuel elements, having stainless-steel jackets, uranium dioxide is used, which is enriched up to 5.0-6.5%o in uranium and dispersed in a heat-conducting matrix alloy. The allowable temperature of the fuel element jackets is 630-650?C, which provides for superheating of steam up to 565'C. in the channels. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 Fig. 5. Production (-) and cost (-?-) of electrical energy in the second unit. From the moment it was started up right up to the present more than 700 SC have been operated in the reactors. The average energy production of the unloaded SC is ~26 MW ? days/kg, and their useful life in the reactor is 5-6 years. However, the characteristics cited are not the limit. A group of channels is operating with an energy production of ^'35 MW ? days/kg, which it has been decided to bring up to 37-40 MW ? days/kg in them. During the operation 30 SC were extracted prematurely from reactor 1 for monitoring inspections and checks by virtue of putting the channels out of service and for other reasons, and only eight channels were ex- tracted from reactor 2 in connection with disturbances in the operating conditions or for monitoring inspections (Fig. 3). During the entire period of operation of the superheating fuel elements no case of their being put out of service due to radiation impairment and incompatibility of materials was observed [5]. Thanks to the high reliability of the channels, the physical characteristics of the BAEPP reactors (ura- nium enrichment, reactivity) provide fora satisfactory amount of the fuel component in the cost of the electri- cal energy, notwithstanding the significant unproductive neutron absorption in the SC. Evaluation of the fuel component in the cost of electrical energy permits confirming that at an average depletion of 34 MW ? days/kg and with maintenance of the existing technology and the cost of preparation of the fuel elements and channels one can expect values of the fuel component of R0.3 kopecks/kWh, which makes nuclear superheating competitive in regions with a price level of 20-22 rubles/ton for organic fuel [6]. The operating experience with the Beloyarskaya reactors confirmed a rather stable equalization of the energy distribution. A reduction in the capacity of maximally loaded channels and a practically constant ratio of the total capacities of the evaporative and superheating circuits, as well as a negligible scatter in the tem- perature of the steam at the output from the SC (Fig. 4), are a consequence of this. Regulation of the tempera- ture of the superheated steam, the average over the reactor and at the output from individual SC, presents no complication. The temperature of the steam at the output from the channels is stable in time, and its oscilla- tions are negligible (2-3?C). Fluctuations on the ratio of power for evaporation and superheating of steam did not exceed 1%. When necessary, e.g., during start-up, one can vary this ratio by altering the radial energy distribution with the regulating rods. The designers of the BAEPP reactors strived for the minimum effects possible of reactivity associated with variation in the operating conditions of the AEPP, in particular, a variation in the amount of water in the active zone under different operating conditions of the units, especially when starting and stopping them. The operation of both reactors of the BAEPP has confirmed their weak sensitivity to the amount of water in the zone. The greatest effect of reactivity in the BAEPP reactors is connected with emptying or filling the SC with water during the start-ups and shutdowns of the units. This effect changes significantly during the operat- ing process, which is explained, e.g., by its dependence on fuel depletion; however, it does not exceed 0.41/o in absolute magnitude. The variation of the reactivity during the start-up of the reactor is easily compensated by the regulation system. Operational experiments with regard to the physics of channel reactors with nuclear superheating has shown that nuclear-physical characteristics can be selected in this type of reactor which completely satisfy both the nuclear safety requirements and the specific heat engineering requirements for nuclear superheating while simultaneously providing for an acceptable amount of the fuel component, notwithstanding the use of steel in the fuel channels and the additional neutron loss in the SC. The production and cost of electrical energy during 1971-1975 in the second unit of the BAEPP are shown in Fig. 5. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 TABLE 1. Principal Characteristics of Reac- tors with Nuclear Superheating of Steam Character- BAEPP istic 1 BAEPP 2 Supercritical parameters of steam Electrical 200 capacity, Thermal 1820 pacity, Fuel charge, 67 50 59,8 80 4 293 2 tons Av. deple- 13,7/23 13,7/23 33/33 , 34/38 , . 19/19 tion (EC/ SC), MW days/kg Enrichment of urani- u.m, No. of evap- 389 429 orative . than. (EC); pieces No. of su- 1304 1264 peteating channels, pieces Steam temp. 540/540 540/540 * 450 before the Crbine, Steam pres- 240 240 sure before the turbine, kgf/cm2 *Turbine with intermediate superheating of steam. The design of the fuel channels provides for an appreciable reserve with regard to the number of per- missible heat-exchange cycles in the channel during the operating period of the fuel with rapid load variation. The number of such cycles during 6 years is about 200, and the actual maximum rate of change in the steam temperature was 20-40 deg C/min and in the pressure, X0.7 kgf/cm2 in 1 min. The reliability of operation of the basic equipment is characterized by the readiness coefficient of the main circulating pumps (0.997-0.999) and the feed pumps (0.993-0.995) [7]. The radiation environment of the AEPP site, and in particular next to the turbine during operation and in connection with the maintenance of the process equipment during shutdown of the units, does not prevent carrying out the maintenance operations. The deposition of radioactive corrosion products on the inner sur- faces of the turbine are negligible. The radiation intensity at the high-pressure cylinder is 1.0-10 AR/sec and at the low-pressure cylinder 0.2-8.0 ?R/sec. The strength of the radiation doses is 0.05-0.10 -?R/sec in con- tinuously occupied places, 0.3-12.0 ?R/sec in places occupied part of the. time, 15-20 tsR/sec next to the equip- ment of the superheating circuit of the first unit, and 5-50 pR/sec near the equipment of the condenser-feed line of the second unit [8]. The ejection of radioactive products into the atmosphere under conditions of nor- mal operation is less by a factor of 5-10 than the permissible health standards [9]. Prospects for the Development of Nuclear Superheating of Steam. A water-graphite reactor with nuclear superheating to supercritical parameters of steam can be used for the indicated purposes under conditions of the increasing need for energy systems in subpeak energy units and of the need for operation of AE PP accord- ing to a dispatcher load diagram. Design studies of such a reactor are being conducted in the USSR. Accord- ing to the expenditures cited, a specialist atomic unit will be competitive with similar units using organic fuel for a comparable power of 800 MW in the utilization range of installed capacity of 3500-5000 h/yr [2]. The existing tendency of enlarging the individual capacities of reactors and turbogenerators makes the combining of nuclear superheating with the application of low-absorbing construction materials continually more urgent. The design of the RBMKP-2400 reactor, in which the superheating of steam to 450?C at a pres- sure of 65 kgf/cm2 is provided [10], is promising in this direction; the zirconium alloys already mastered in reactor technology are being used, and stainless steel will be used only for the casings of fuel element rods made of uranium dioxide [11]. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 Prototypes of the superheating channels of the RBMKP-2400 reactor are presently undergoing resource tests on the BAE PP. Improvement of the engineering-economic indices of nuclear superheating is expected in the RBMKP-2400 reactor due to an increase in the specific power of the fuel, the use of more favorable con- struction materials for the active zone in the neutron physics respect, the application of nonremovable-chan- nel design, etc. The principle of sectional-modular preparation has been realized in the_ RBMKP reactor, which .improves the engineering-economic indices of the AEPP, simplifies operations of bringing about a reactor on-line, and permits regulation of the temperature of the superheated steam with the help of a system for controlling and - regulating the energy distribution. The reactor is discussed in more detail in [10, 11]. The principal techni- cal characteristics of reactors with nuclear superheating of steam are given in Table 1. CONCLUSIONS The operating experience of the BAEPP reactors has confirmed the possibility of the industrial realization of nuclear superheating of steam right up to 510-540?C, sufficient reliability, and the safety of reactors of this class. The introduction of nuclear superheating is economically justified: when steam is superheated to 500?C and higher with the use of stainless steels as the construction material in the active zone and the use of re- movable and sleeve fuel elements; when zirconium alloys are used in the active zone and the steam tempera- ture is ^-450?C, and when rod fuel elements, nonremovable channels, and the appropriate organization of steam in the channel is used. Reactors with nuclear superheating of steam permit operation under variable conditions and at atomic heat and electric power plants with channeling of the heat to domestic and industrial needs. Channel-type reactors with nuclear superheating permit enlarging capacity on the basis of standard units and the use of high-speed turbine units having large capacity, and they significantly reduce the thermal emis- sions into the environment. LITERATURE CITED 1. I. D. Morokhov et al. (editors), To Atomic Power of the 20th Century [in Russian], Atomizdat, Moscow (1974). 2. 3. P. I. Aleshenkov et al., in: Operating Experience of AEPP and Ways to Further Develop Atomic Power [in Russian], Vol. 2, Izd. FEI, Obninsk (1974), p. 99. I. K. Emel'yanov et al., At. Energ., 33, No.,3, 729 (1972). 4. N. A. Dollezhal' et al., At. Energ., 36, No. 6, 432 (1974). 5. 6. A. N. G. Samoilov, A. V. Pozdnyakova, and V. S. Volkov, At. Energ., 40, No.5, 371 (1976). A. Dollezhal' et al., in: Operating Experience of AEPP and Ways to Further Develop Atomic Power [in Russian], Vol. 1, Izd. FEI, Obninsk (1974), p. 149. 7. I. Ya. Emel'yanov, B. B. Baturov, and A. I. Klemin, ibid., p. 33. 8. A. P. Veselkin et al., At. Energ., 30, No. 2, 144 (1971). 9. A.. M. Petros'yants, Atomic Power [in Russian], Nauka, Moscow (1976). 10. A. P. Aleksandrov, Lecture at the International Atomic Energy Agency International Conference on Nuclear Power and Its Fuel Cycle, Salzburg, May 2-3,1977, IAEA-CN-36/586. 11. N. A. Dollezhal' et al.,. in: Operating Experience of AEPP and Ways to Further Develop Atomic Power [in Russian], Vol. 1, Izd. FEI, Obninsk (1974), p. 233. 137 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 THE PR,INCIPA.L TECHNICAL PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS FOR THE CREATION OF GA.S-COOLED FAST REACTORS WITH A. POWER O.F 1200-1500 MW USING A. DISSOCIATING COOLANT A. K. Krasin, V. -B. Nesterenko, B. E. Tverkovkin, V. F. Zelenskii, V. A. Naumov, V. P. `Gol'tsev, S. D. Kova.lev, and L. I. Kolykhan Preliminary engineering-economic characteristics of atomic electric power plants (AEPP) with a fast reactor of 1200-1500-MW electrical capacity were determined on the basis of neutron physics, thermal hy- draulic, and engineering calculations and design studies of the reactor and the main equipment of an AEPP in, which dissociating nitrogen tetroxide (N204) is used as the coolant (BRGD-1200-1500). The advantages of such an AEPP are a decrease in the amount.of equipment due to the use of a single- circuit layout of heat conversion and a reduction in the metal content.of the equipment by virtue of peculiarities of the thermophysical properties of N2O4, as well as high yield rates of secondary nuclear fuel. This permits one to predict the attainment of specific investments in AEPP of the BRGD-1200-1500 type up to the level of investments in AEPP with water coolant. Reactors of 1000-MW electrical capacity based on N2O4 can, according to the computational data, yield up to 500-900 kg/yr of plutonium. These same reactors permit yields of up to 1400 kg/yr when operated as re- processors [1]. A large number of alternatives wereconsideredinthe course of the design studies of fast reactors based on N204, and they differ among themselves in the gas exit temperature of 2800-570?C, the pressure in the circuit of 80-160 bars, the construction of the fuel elements (rod and spherical), and the type of fuel composition (ma- trix fuel based on uranium dioxide and nitrides in Nichrome or chrome matrices with 30-4010 by volume [2]; low-alloy metallic fuel with double protection from possible interactions of N204 with the fuel; and carbide fuel [3] with a carbon-silicon casing for spherical microfuel elements). All the alternatives discussed essentially satisfy contemporary requirements on the yield rate of secon- dary nuclear fuel. Investigations of the fuel cycles of the growing nuclear power show that the consumption of natural uranium in a nuclear power system can be reduced by 45-5010 upon the introduction (in 5 years) of fast reactors based on Na and N204 in comparison with thermal and fast reactors based on Na (the external cycle time is T = 0.5-1 year).. In addition, in ^r 30 years the system under discussion will develop into the mode of providing its own plutonium [8]. The principal thermal hydraulic and physical characteristics of breeder reactors and reprocessors of the BRGD type with a matrix fuel based on uranium dioxide and plutonium in the active zone (1500-MW electri- cal capacity) are given in Table 1. At a gas exit temperature from the reactor of 450?C and a pressure of 150 bars, amaximum temperature of the fuel-element casings of 650-680?C, and with heating of the gas in the reac- tor to 230-270?C one can achieve a heat release rate of 800-1000 kW/liter of the active zone, having obtained a doubling time of 5-6 years with a plutonium yield of 500-900 kgf/yr for breeder reactors and up to 1400 kg/yr for reprocessors. The best characteristics of the BRGD-type reactor are produced by: the high energy release rate; the rigid spectrum of the neutrons (especially in the case of the use of a chrome matrix) (a.9O =0 - 248 and (a)N211 z a a = 0.260; and the large contribution of the shields to-the reproduction of fuel by virtue of the high leakage of neu- trons from the active zone and the use of metallic uranium in the shields as the source material. Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 131-136, February, 1978. 138 0038-531X/78/4402- 0138 $07.50 ?1978 Plenum Publishing Corporation Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/07: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700110002-4 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 1?C Fig. 1. Experimental data on the specific heat of N204, kcal/(kg ? deg): A) 116; A) 130; 0) 150; ?) 170. Alternatives with matrix fuel based on uranium dioxide