Soviet Atomic Energy Vol. 40, No. 2

Body:  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 Russian Original Vol. 40, No. 2, February, 1976 August, 1976 SATEAZ.40(2) 119-242 (1976) SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY Al UI-Ir1An %mtrl vin (ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA) TRANSLATED FROM RUSSIAN CONSULTANTS BUREAU, NEW YORK Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY Soviet Atomic Energy is a cover-to-cover translation of Atomnaya Energiya, a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. An agreement with the Copyright Agency of the USSR (VAAP) makes available both advance copies' of the Russian journal and original glossy photographs and artwork. This serves to decrease -the necessary time lag between publication of the original and publication of the translation, and helps to improve the quality of the latter. The translation began with the first issue of the -Russian journal. Editorial Board of Atomnaya Energiya: Editor: M. D. Millionshchikov Deputy Director 1. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy Academy of Sciences of the USSR fv1oscow, USSR Associate Editor: N. A. Vlasov A. A. Bochvar N. A: Dollezhal' V. S. Fursov I. N. Golovin V. F. Kalinin A. K. Krasin'- Copyright ? 1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. All 'rights reserved. No article contained herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. Consultants Bureau journals appear about six months after the publication of the original Russian issue. For bibliographic accuracy, the English issue published by Consultants,Bureau carries the,same number and date as the original Russian from which it was translated. For example, a Russian issue published in December will appear in a Consultants Bureau English translation about the following June, but, the translation. issue will carry-the December date. When ordering any volume or partic'u- .lar issuer of a Consultants Bureau journal, please. specify the date and, where appli-. cable, the volume' and issue numbers of the original Russian. The material you will receive will be a translation of that Russian volume or issue. Subscription $107.50 pervolume (6 Issues) 2 volumes per year - Prices eomewhat higher outside the United'States. CONSULTANTS BUREAU, NEW YORK-AND LONDON Soviet Atomic-Energy is abstracted or in- dexed in Applied Mechanics Reviews, Chem- ical Abstracts, Engineering Index, INSPEC- . Physics Abstracts and Electrical and Elec- tronics 'Abstracts, Current Contents, and Nuclear Science Abstracts. 0 227 West 17th Street New York, New York 10011 V. V. Matveev M. G..Meshcheryakov V. B. Shevchenko V. I. S.mirnov? A. P. Zefirov Single Issue: $50 Single Article:. $15 Published monthly. second-class postage paid at Jamaica, New York 11431. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY A translation of Atomnaya Energiya August, 1976 Volume 40, Number 2 February, 1976 CONTENTS Engl./Buss. ARTICLES Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy and the Problem of Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons - I. D. Morokhov, K. V. Mysanikov, and V. M. Shmelev ................................................. 119 99 Atomic Science and Technology in the National Economy of the USSR - A. K. Kruglov .................................................... 123 103 Experience in the Construction of Large Power Reactors in the USSR - N. A. Dollezhal' and I. Ya. Emel'yanov ............................. 137 117 Physical Start-up of the RBMK-Reactor of the Second Unit of the V. I. Lenin Nuclear Power Station, Leningrad - I. Ya. Emel'yanov, M. B. Egiazarov, V. I. Ryabov, A. D. Zhirnov, V. P. Borshchev, B. A. Vorontsov, A. N. Kuz'min, Yu. I. Lavrenov, V. S. Romanenko, Yu. M. Serebrennikov, and A. P. Sirotkin .................................................. 147 127 High-Temperature Reactors as a Factor of Scientific Progress in Power Generation - N. A. Dollezhal' and Yu. I. Koryakin ............... 154 133 Methods of Mathematical Modeling and Optimization of Nuclear Power Plants - L. S. Popyrin .................................................... 166 145 Operative Monitoring System for the Energy-Liberation Fields of the Reactors in the Beloyarsk Nuclear-Power Station - N. Ya. Kulikov, ]. I. Snitko, A. M. Rasputnis, and V. P. Solodov ................................... 174 152 Structural-Geological Features of Uranium Deposits in Collapse Calderas - V. A. Nevskii, N. P. Laverov, and A. E. Tolkunov .................... 178 155 Continuous Underground Ore-Mining Operations with the Aid of Nuclear Explosives - V. V. Gushchin, K. D. Vasin, B. I. Nifontov, Yu. L. Odrov, K. V. Myasnikov, V. M. Kol'tsov, G. N. Kornev, and V. A. Degtyarev ................................................ 185 162 INFORMATION Atomic Energy in the USSR in the Ninth Five-Year Plan - L. M. Voronin and E. Yu. Zharkovskii ............................................. LETTERS Effect of Neutrons Reflected from the Walls of a Room on Pulse Parameters in Fast Reactors - V. F. Kolesov .................................... 194 171 Slipping Conditions in the Problem of the Minimum Critical Mass - A. M. Pavlovichev and A. P. Rudik ................................. 197 173 Effective Half-Life of 252Cf - V. K. Mozhaev ............................... 200 174 Measurement of the Effective Cross Section for the Fission of 252Cf by Fast Reactor Neutrons - E. F. Fomushkin, E. K. Gutnikova, G. F. Novoselov, and V. I. Panin ..................................................... 202 176 Unusual Mineral Associations in the Oxidation Zone of Sulfide-Free Uranium Deposits - V. N. Levin and L. N. Belova .............................. 204 177 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 CONTENTS Effective Gamma-Ray Attenuation Coefficients for Radioactive Ores - G. F. Novikov, A. Ya. Sinitsyn, and Yu. D. Kozynda ............ . . BOOK REVIEWS Yu. A. Gulin. The Garnma- Gamma Method of Investigating Oil Wells - Reviewed by E. M. Filippov ....... ................................. . CMEA CHRONICLE 19th Conference of the CMEA Permanent Committee on Atomic Energy Use - Yu. I. Chikul .................................................... Work of the Coordinating Scientific-Technical Council on Reprocessing Irradiated Fuel of AES - V. I. Zemlyanukhin .......................... Results of the Work of the Coordinated Scientific-Technical Council on Radiation Techniques and Technology (KNTS-RT) - A. K. Zille ........................... Journal of Collaboration ............... ................ ....... ............. CONFERENCES AND MEETINGS A Conference on the Problems of the Design, Assembly, Starting, and Operation of Atomic Electric Power Plants - Yu. I. Mityaev. .:............................ . Conference on the Technical Applications of Superconductivity - A. G. Plesch.......... 4th International Conference on Thermal Emission Energy Conversion - A. I. Kulichenkov ........................................................ 7th European Conference on Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion and Plasma Physics - Z. I. Kuznetsov ......................................................... Soviet West German Symposium "Armatures and Pumps for Power Stations" - R. R.lonaitis ........................................................... Technical Conference Nuclex-75 - L. N. Podlazov ................................. Conference of Specialists on Data Processing for Reactions with Charged Particles - L. L. Sokolovskii ........................................................ 24th Session of the Scientific Committee of the United Nations - R. M. Aleksakhin and A. A. Moiseev ......................................................... Engl./Russ. 210 181 211 181 213 182 216 184 218 185 220 186 224 188 227 190 229 192 231 193 EXHIBITIONS Soviet Exhibitions at the 4th International Exhibition of the Nuclear Industry Nuclex-75 - V. A. Dolinin .................................................. 237 195 BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Ya. Emel'yanov, P. A. Gavrikov, and B. N. Seliverstov. Control and Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors - Reviewed by V. I. Plyutinskii ................ 239 197 Yu. V. Seredin and V. V. Nikol'skii. Principles of Radiation Safety in Prospecting and Exploration for Minerals - Reviewed by E. D. Chistov ................ 241 198 The Russian press date (podpisano k pechati) of this issue was 1/23/1976. Publication therefore did not occur prior to this date, but must be assumed to have taken place reasonably soon thereafter. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 PEACESFUL,?USE OF NUCLEAR ENERGY AND THE PROBLEM OF NONPROLIFERATION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS I. D. Morokhov, K. V. Myasnikov, UDC 621.039/623.454.8 and V. M. Shmelev An analysis of the population increase of the world and of energy requirements per capita shows that as much energy will be consumed in the world from 1970 to 2000,as was consumed in the last 20 centuries. The energy demand at the end of the century will be approximately three times greater than present levels. Even today the most highly developed capitalist countries are feeling the lack of "energy sources. This cir- cumstance has created great interest in the use of a new energy source - nuclear power. The advantages of nuclear power from the economic and ecological aspects are extremely encourag- ing. The economic indicators for large nuclear power installations and future improvement in nuclear technology, the development of breeders for example, convincingly demonstrate that the traditional energy sources (coal, oil, gas) will be increasingly supplemented and displaced by nuclear fuel. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) estimates that by the year 2000, 50%of the total energy balance of the world will consist of electrical power and about 50%of all electrical power will be produced by means of nuclear- power installations (Figs. 1, 2). The energy crisis has significantly increased the competitiveness of nuclear power in comparison with the usual sources of electrical power. Today, not much more than 20 years after the start-up of the first nuclear-power station in Obninsk, there are more than 100 nuclear-power stations operating in the world with a total installed power close to 40 million kW, and according to predictions the power from nuclear-power stations will be about three billion kW by the year 2000. As is clear from Fig. 2, nuclear power should occupy a leading position in the energy picture of developing countries even in the next few decades. Among these countries, there are those that will consider it more economic to construct nuclear- power stations and not consume their own oil and gas reserves for power purposes. It is precisely nuclear power that makes it possible to free humanity from the threat of a power shortage and to provide power for a developing civilization. In addition to power, nuclear technology and nuclear methods are becoming indispensable in industry, agriculture, medicine, and geology for monitoring atmospheric contamination and in other fields. The swift progress of the peaceful use of nuclear energy brings special acuteness to the problem of preventing the proliferation of nuclear weapons. The development of nuclear technology leads to wide- spread "creeping" of nuclear materials over the entire planet which can give rise to the preconditions for the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Nuclear materials intended for peaceful uses can be diverted into military channels for the production of nuclear weapons or other explosive devices. The possibility of such diversion exists when thermal and fast reactors are used where plutonium, which can be used for military production, is produced as the result of irradiation of uranium. Enriched uranium itself can be used for the manufacture of nuclear weapons. According to the IAEA, the amount of natural uranium in power reactors will rise to 15,000 tons by 1985 and the amount of enriched uranium to 70,000 tons (Fig. 3). According to the same data, 700 tons of plutonium will be in storage, and the amount of plutonium in the fuel of thermal and fast reactors will be Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 99-102, February, 1976. ?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N. Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 150 100 2000 1990 1980 1970 1960 1950 50 0 0,25 0,50 Fig. 1 - 1990 - 1985 1980 1975 1970 Fig. 1. On the left, worldwide power production (trillions of kWh); on the right, fraction used in the form of electrical power: 0) total; ^) electrical power. Fig. 2. Electrical power production (thousands of MW): on the left, total installed power for world's electrical power stations; on the right, installed power for electrical power stations in developing countries-.0.) all stations; ) nuclear power stations. more than 500 tons (Fig. 4). The fact that even by 1980 the peaceful production of plutonium and enriched uranium will be sufficient for the manufacture of tens of atomic bombs per day is clear evidence of the acuteness of the problem. At the same time, if even a small portion of the stored plutonium is used in accordance with existing international agreements for the production of explosives for peaceful purposes, humanity will obtain a huge and inexpensive source of energy. Many studies on the peaceful use of underground nuclear explosions have been carried out over the past decade in the USSR, USA, England, France, and several other countries. At the Geneva conference in May 1975, to consider the effect of the Treaty on Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons, the IAEA presented a review of its activities in accordance with Article V of the treaty. The report presented the conclusions of four international conferences held by the agency. in 1970, 1971, 1972, and 1975 with respect to two basic problems: the technical and economic feasibility,and the safety of underground nuclear explosions. Be- cause of the exceptional compactness of the explosive devices and the low cost of the energy produced, peaceful nuclear explosions make it possible to create new, efficient technical procedures, to carry out large-scale civil-engineering projects, and to provide new scientific opportunities. In the report, peaceful nuclear explosions were divided into three groups according to the degree of investigation of the technology: 1. Recognized industrial forms of application of peaceful explosions. 2. Large-scale experiments under field conditions. 3. Laboratory development and theoretical studies. In the first group are such examples of the use of peaceful nuclear explosions as the elimination of accidental gas blowouts, the intensification of oil extraction, the creation of underground storage cavities in rock-salt masses, and the creation of open reservoirs for water storage. In the second group are the experiments performed in the USA in low-permeability gas formations for the purpose of developing a commercial technology for gas extraction. Calculations by American scien- tists show that the national commercial gas reserves will be doubled or tripled by a successfully developed technology. This group also includes experimental nuclear explosions with removal of soil for the develop- ment of a technology for the construction of large industrial works - canals: Panama, Pechora-Kolva (USSR), Orinoco-Rio Negro (Venezuela), and'Kra (Thailand). The use of underground nuclear explosions should reduce expense and construction time significantly. In the construction of the Kra canal, e.g., the saving would be two billion dollars out of a total construction cost of six billion dollars. In the third group are the most complex areas for the use of peaceful nuclear explosions such as the extraction of oil by distillation from oil-bearing shale, leaching of copper at the point of deposit, production of geothermal energy, and disposal of radioactive wastes. These are projects which provide for the use of peaceful explosions for scientific purposes. Considerable experience and experimental data have accumulated in recent years which make it pos- sible to predict the seismic and radiation consequences of underground nuclear explosions with a definite engineering approximation. Specially constructed elements are used for the reduction of radiation conse- quences. In the report on specific examples, it was shown that the potential irradiation of the population Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 from contained nuclear explosions may be only an insignificant fraction of the dose level established by the International Commission on Radiation Pro- tection. For explosions with soil removal, it may appear necessary in some cases to evacuate the local population temporarily in order to reduce irradiation dose levels. Fig. 3. Amount of natural (1) and en- riched (2) uranium loaded into power reactors. 1975 19e0 Year Fig. 4. Amount of stored plutonium (1) and amount of pluton- ium in reactor fuel (2) The seismic consequences of explosions can be predicted with a sufficiently high degree of accu- racy including possible costs for reconstruction. By their very nature, the seismic consequences be- long more with the factors which determine the eco- nomic efficiency of peaceful explosions since the safety of the population can be assured with a high degree of reliability by the working out of special measures. The prevention of the proliferation of nuclear and thermonuclear weapons of mass destruction re- presents an urgent problem for mankind. Therefore, a need arose for the development of methods guaran- teeing that materials used in peaceful nuclear activities would not be diverted into military channels. A system of such guarantees, and of methods and means for accountability and inspection of nuclear mater- ials, has been developed and used by the IAEA for more than 15 years. The Treaty on Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons, which became effective in 1970, created a juri- dical basis for the use of international guarantees. By the middle of 1975, 43 governments had concluded inspection agreements with IAEA and had put them into operation; about 30 agreements are in the stage of development or legal formulation. On June 30, 1975, there was under the control of IAEA 47 nuclear power stations, 115 reactors, 29 plants for the processing, manufacture, and reprocessing of fuel, and 195 other separate areas of nuclear-material accounting. In a single year (from July 1974 through June 1975), the agency performed 502 inspections without finding any cases of treaty violations. Experience in the applica- tion of IAEA guarantees clearly showed that its control mechanisms functioned reliably to ensure satisfac- tion by all governments of their obligations. The treaty facilitates the widespread introduction of nuclear power into the economy of developing countries. The technical assistance extended by IAEA to developing countries in the use of nuclear power is expanding year by year. In the last five years, the total amount of such help was 23.8 million dollars in comparison with 23.5 million dollars in the preceding eleven years. The agency has performed preparatory work in providing service for the use of peaceful nuclear ex- plosions. It consisted of four technical meetings on this problem which made it possible for nonnuclear countries to evaluate the potential merits of peaceful nuclear explosions, developed principles and pro- cedures for international inspection after their occurrence, and created a special subsection for providing services and further study of this problem. The Treaty on Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons, being an international instrument creating serious barriers to the proliferation of nuclear weapons, not only is not an obstacle in the path of exten- sive application of nuclear power for peaceful purposes, but facilitates such application and creates favor- able conditions for international cooperation in this field. An important event in strengthening the means for nonproliferation of nuclear weapons was the con- ference to consider the effect of the treaty during the past five years. Experience during the five years showed that all signatories to the treaty strictly observed its principles. The most important political outcome of the conference was the further expansion of the group of treaty signatories on the eve of the conference, or during the course of the conference, to include West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Nether- lands, Luxembourg, Gambia, Ruanda, and Libya. At the same time, a considerable group of "near-nuclear governments" and two nuclear powers remain outside the framework of the treaty. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 The conference emphasized the importance of a system of accounting and inspection for nuclear ma- terial from the viewpoint of the responsibility of treaty signatories and of the importance of collaboration with IAEA for cooperation in achieving the guarantees in accordance with Article III of the treaty. The con- ference expressed vigorous support for effective guarantees by the IAEA on the application of this inspec- tion to all peaceful nuclear activities of treaty nonsignatories that import nuclear materials and special technical equipment and for recommendations for strengthening the protection of nuclear materials against theft, which were adopted to a considerable extent on the initiative of the USSR. The conference confirmed the responsibility under Article IV for all treaty signatories to facilitate as far as possible the most complete interchange of equipment, materials, and scientific and technical information, pointing out that the treaty provides favorable conditions for the expansion of international collaboration in this field. The conference adopted recommendations on further development of interna- tional collaboration, in particular on studies of the creation of regional centers for the nuclear fuel cycle, which are extremely important for the accomplishment of control. The conference devoted considerable attention to Article V concerning peaceful nuclear explosions, which provides thattreaty signatories not having nuclear weapons will obtain the benefits from peaceful use of nuclear explosions "through the appropriate international organ in which governments not possessing nuclear weapons are properly represented." On the initiative of the socialist countries, the conference adopted a resolution that the IAEA will be just such an international organ. The conference called for a continuance of the work in this field and entrusted the agency with a central role in problems associated with the provision of services relative to peaceful nuclear explosions. Of great value is the proposal adopted by the conference on the recommendation of the socialist countries that the potential benefits of peaceful nuclear explosions be accessible to governments not possessing nuclear weapons and not treaty signatories under appropriate international inspection and by means of procedures developed by IAEA. These proposals, accepted by the conference, eliminate the need for the construction of nuclear devices by nonnuclear governments for peaceful purposes, which is very important from the viewpoint of the non- proliferation of nuclear weapons. An important position in the treaty is occupied by Article VI which specifies the responsibility of signatory governments to conduct negotiations to halt the nuclear arms race and also to achieve universal and total disarmament. Important international agreements have been developed in this field in recent years with the active participation of the Soviet Union and other socialist countries. Of outstanding value for the cause of peace and international security are the Soviet-American agreements signed in 1972 and 1973 on the prevention of nuclear war, on the limitation of systems for defence against ballistic missiles, and on certain measures in the field of limitation of strategic offensive weapons. During the third Soviet-American high-level meeting in the summer of 1974, new important agreements were reached, including a treaty on the limita- tion of underground tests of nuclear weapons. In accordance with this treaty, the USSR and USA are con- ducting negotiations on peaceful nuclear explosions. This is making a significant contribution to the matter of general prohibition of nuclear-weapon testing. The conference stressed that adherence to the Treaty on Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons by nonnuclear governments was the test method for mutual assurance of the renunciation of nuclear weapons and an effective measure for strengthening their safety. Treaty signatories confirmed their great interest in the prevention of further proliferation of nuclear weapons. They confirmed their vigorous support of the treaty, their unshaken devotion to its principles and purposes, and their responsibility to carry out its regulations completely and more effectively. The time which has passed since the day the Treaty on Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons became effective has demonstrated its widespread international recognition as an effective instrument to check the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 AT.-OM,IC7.~S_CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY OF THE USSR A. K. Kruglov UDC 621.039/338 Little more than 30 years have passed since the first nuclear reactor in the world first went critical, yet now the nuclear industry in various countries is an independent field occupying a leading place in the national economy. Atomic science in the USSR not only promotes the creation of the new production needed for nuclear power which has been successfully developed, but is also, involved in the introduction of its achievements in the national economy. The energy developed by nuclear fission is employed in a number of new direc- tions. Radioactive isotopes are used for creating small atomic batteries to supply energy to apparatus and instruments, and also to power artificial organs in man. They are widely used in medicine, industry, and .agriculture not just for marking atoms (radioactive indicators), but also as sources of ionizing radiation for changing the material properties. The nuclear explosives which are produced enable us to use the energy of the atom in order to con- struct canals, reservoirs, underground storage chambers for various liquids and gases, and also to create new methods of extracting useful minerals. The achievements of nuclear physics, the science that provides the basis for the, atomic industry, have lead to the creation of charged-particle accelerators of various types and designs, which are widely employed in the national economy, giving boosts to the accelerated development of various branches of technology. The development of nuclear power engineering in the USSR, already enables the nuclear power sta- tions to generate energy at a cost per kilowatt-hour which is lower than can be achieved on thermal-power stations, particularly in regions far removed from sources of fossil fuels [1]. TABLE 1. Experimental Values of Depth of Improvements in the cost effectiveness of the nu- Burn-Up of the Nuclear Fuel at the Novo- clear-power stations are being achieved both by increasing the unit powers of the reactors and also by improving the vorenezh Nuclear-Power Station, kg/ton Ti technology of reactor construction and the production of Bum-up Unit I Unit II 239Pu Total 16,4 18,9 14,3 22,6 nuclear fuel. In a relatively short period of time (about 20 years) since the commissioning of the world's first nucle- ar-power station at Obninsk, the national economy is bene- fiting from nuclear reactors which have 200 times the unit power of the reactor in the first nuclear-power station. Two channel-type uranium-graphite reactors (type RBMK) Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 103-116, February, 1976. ?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N. Y. 10011. No part of this publication maybe reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 Fig. 1. The nuclear-powered Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 TABLE 2. Concentration of Actinides (g have been commissioned at the V. I. Lenin nuclear-power /ton) in Irradiated Fuel from Thermal station at Leningrad, each with an installed power of 1 GW, Reactors with Normal Water and Fast while the water-moderated water-cooled vessel reactor Breeder Reactors [5] (type VVER) at the "50th Anniversary of the USSR" nu- Thermalreactor. Fast reactor. clear-power station at Novovoronezh has been running Isotopes burn-up33,000M burn-up 80,000 successfully for 10 years [2]. The power of the four units (days/ton MW days/ton on this station comprised 1455 MW ate he beginning of 242Cm 8 42,3 1975. Five units with 1-MW type VVER reactors are 2"Cm 31 41,9 actively under construction. u1Am 50 1460 243Am 92 711 The second unit at the Kola nuclear-power station 237Np 450 180 V 238pu 168 1840 was commissioned in 1974 with a type VVER-440 reactor, 249pu 5300 100 240pu 2140 52400 the total power of the first stage of this station being 880 241pu 1100 14400 MW. Construction has now started on the second stage, 235pu 340 9020 7 involving two type VVER-440 reactors. 236U 4 520 10 238U 940000 719000 Armyansk, Kursk, Chernoby'sk, Smolensk, and Kali- nin nuclear-power stations (this is a far from complete list of the stations constructed with types VVER and RBMK reactors) constitute the basis for the development of nuclear-power engineering in the USSR in the near future [3]. During the 20-year period of development of nuclear technology, there has been a significant improvement in the cost effectiveness of both nuclear-power stations and nuclear-power engineering which, as we have already noted, has become competitive with conventional power engineering. At a conference on the planning, adjustment, and operation of nuclear-power stations, data were given on the high cost ef- fectiveness of the stations. For example, the cost of electrical energy at Novovoronezh was 0.752 kopecks per kWh in 1973 and 0.655 in 1974, which is below the cost of the electrical energy generated by the modern steam power stations in the European part of the USSR [3]. Successful operation of the types VVER and RBMK reactors enables us to set about creating more economical thermal reactors with unit powers of about 1.5 GW [1]. Experience with the operation of the Novovoronezh station has illustrated the reliability of the nuclear fuel, ensuring an average depth of burn-up of 33.3. 103 MW days/ton U from the time of loading (7.974). It should, however, be noted that this energy output arises not just from 235U; a significant contribution to- wards the output of energy from a thermal reactor is made by a secondary fuel, plutonium, which is formed from 238U during the operation of the reactor. Table 1 gives the results of tests to determine the fuel burn-up in the elements of the two reactors at the Novovoronezh nuclear-power station [2]. These results were obtained by the gamma-spectrometer method without disrupting the fuel elements themselves. The errors in determining burn-up did not exceed f 15%r. Any increase in the duration of neutron irradiation of the nuclear fuel in a power-station reactor not only leads to an increase in the total energy generation (burn-up of the original fuel), but also increases the relative role of plutonium in the total generation of energy, i.e., reduces the specific expenditure of 235U per unit power. If we compare the effectiveness of nuclear fuel and fossil fuel, and assume that 1 ton of conventional fuel = 7000 ? 103 kcal, then with complete burn-up of nuclear fuel in thermal reactors [(35 to 40) -103 MW days/ton of original slightly enriched uranium], a ton of fuel elements generates energy equivalent to 100- 120 ' 103 tons of conventional fuel. With existing energy intensities of the fuel, such a burn-up would be achieved within three years on a power station, an increased burn-up being limited by the cost of the fuel elements. In fast reactors, which employ other forms of coolant, the specific energy intensity is significantly higher, and a considerably greater burn-up can be achieved more rapidly. In thermal reactors, even with very high burn-ups of uranium and plutonium, the energy output due to fission of the plutonium,nucleus does not exceed the energy developed by fission of the nucleus of natural uranium (Table 2), whereas in fast reactors, the breeding of nuclear fuel is possible. Scientists of the FEI, under the direction of A. I. Leipun- ski i, have already shown in 1948-1949 that it is possible to involve not just 1 or 20/,.of mined uranium in the' power-generating program, but ten times this, as by a combined use of uranium and plutonium it would be possible to convert practically the whole of the 238U into fissionable plutonium. A study into the creation of Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 TABLE 3. Characteristics of Isotope Energy a physical and engineering basis for fast reactors was Sources carried out in 1954, starting with the BR-1 reactor, fol- Specific (Half lowed by a series of experimental reactors: BR-2, BR-3, e_ u M and BR-5. In order to work out a design for the active life, energy, ~ ??v a ?~ t! zone of the reactors and study the economics of the fuel N N U. 1 i~g Yr (IDi -, Fa ai n? `y S ~ 3 elements, an experimental reactor type BOR-60 was built at Dimitrovgrad, on which experiments were success- Zi6Po 144,0 0,378 0,5 5,401 31,4 242Cm 122,5 0,445 0,5 6,213 27,6 fully carried out in 1969. '92Ir 59,7 0,204 0,2 1,1 154,0 i44Ce 26.7 0,78 1 1,409 120,0 At the present time, a nuclear-power station is 6?Co 17,5 5.26 5 2,607 65,0 227Ac 14.85 21.7 10 34,332 4,94 being built at Shevchenko, equipped with a fast reactor i?oTm 11,35 0,354 0,4 0,321 525,0 type VN-350,designed to generate 150 MW of electrical 232U 5,0 73,6 10 40.174 4.2 244Cm 2,89 17,9 10 5,895 28,6 power and desalinate 120,000 tons of sea water a day. 9OSr 0,936 27,7 10 1.1 154,0 238Pu 0,58 86.4 10 5.59 30,3 A fast reactor type BN-600 is being built. Experience i37Cs 0,411 29,7 10 0.786 215,0 gained in operating these reactors should define the ad- i47Pm 0,338 2,65 3 0,062 2725,0 3H 0,36 12,26 10 0.019 2,7.104 vantages and drawbacks of the chosen equipment schemes and active zones, provide a more-accurate breeding fac- tor, and supply all the data needed to create more-econo- mical fast reactors, the main type of reactor for meeting future power demands [4, 1]. The book "From Scientific Research to an Atomic Industry" [6] and the jubilee handbook, published in connection with the 20th anniversary of the commissioning in the Soviet Union of the world's first nuclear- power station [7], give many physical and engineering characteristics of practically all types of power reactors in the USSR, whether existing, under construction, or still in the planning stage. Successful opera- tion of the icebreakers Leningrad and Arktika (Fig. 1) illustrates the wide possibilities of employing nu- clear reactors with the fleet, in transport roles [7]. Scientists and engineers involved in the manufacture and reprocessing of fuel elements (after re- moval from reactors) solve problems which are concerned not just with radioactive wastes, but also with the fission products that are produced in large quantities and are used in nuclear engineering as isotope sources. As can be seen from Table 2, for each unit weight of fuel element submitted for radiochemical pro- cessing from fast reactors with a burn-up of 80,000 MW days/ton, the concentration of plutonium isotopes is increased by a factor of ten, while the concentration of the transpiutonic elements is increased multi- fold. The competition of the original fuel for the fuel elements used in fast reactors includes significant concentrations of the isotopes of plutonium in addition to the 238U. As an example of this, we could note that the concentrations shown in Fig. 2 of actinides produced during irradiation of fuel in a fast reactor include for each ton of uranium and plutonium, in addition to the 130 kg of 239Pu, the following amounts of short-lived plutonium isotopes (in g/ton): 238Pu = 2590; 240Pu = 51,800; 241Pu = 26,000. Therefore, when manufacturing fuel elements for fast reactors, the total activity of the original fuel can be very high in- deed. The design data given in Table 2 has been obtained under the conditions that exist in thermal reactors, in which the original enrichment of 235U comprised 3.3%, while the average specific power comprised 30 MW/ton. The amount of fuel recovered in the cycle comprises 1/3 of the annual fuel loads. Fast reactors use 238U (78%) as fuel together with isotopes of plutonium; the average specific power is 148 MW/ton, while 1/3 of the fuel load is transferred after 153 days. The use of plutonium in nuclear-power engineering and the consequent radiation safety problems that arise have formed the subject of several articles [8], so that there is no point in dwelling on these topics in the present article. The increased rate of growth of nuclear-power engineering also accelerates the rates of mining and processing uranium ores, which at the present time are the basic source of nuclear fuel. For processing these ores, Soviet scientists and engineers have developed technical processes which enable us to extract other.elements in addition to uranium, such as phosphorus, molybdenum, the rare earth elements and other minerals that are valuable to the national economy [9]. Soviet scientists have Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 TABLE 4. Characteristics of Nuclear Ex- presented papers on the complete utilization of uranium plosions in Rock Salt [17] ores, not just to Soviet conferences, but also to interna- L 'Radius of Di stributionof Yield, Pepth of chambe fissuring above kton bharge, m r form ed, m chamber, m 1,1 I 16i 13,0 83 3.4 365 18,7 60 5.3 828 1714 64. 25.1 600 . 32,0 - tional conferences [10]. Complete utilization of lean uran- ium ores enables the cost of the uranium to be brought down and, in the case of uranium-phosphorus ores for ex- ample, enables us to extract a larger amount of the rare earth elements which are used in many fields of industry, together with valuable phosphorus fertilizers. The con- tent of foodstuffs in fertilizers is 40-50%. The rare earth elements are used as catalysts for cracking oil and as alloying agents for cast iron and steel, while such ele- ments as europium and yttrium are used in the manufac- ture of color picture tubes. The main requirements for the material of the active zone of a reactor have compelled specialists in the atomic industry not only to create a series of new special alloys, but also to arrange their mass pro- duction. Such materials as zirconium and its alloys, special materials containing neutron absorbers, and others are widely used at the present time in nuclear-power engineering and other fields of the national economy. Nuclear fuels are supplied for the development of nuclear power in various countries, and in the form of fuel elements to the COMECON countries and Finland. Isotopes in the National Economy of the USSR Not all the radioactive products separated after radiochemical treatment of the spent nuclear fuel are disposed of by reliable burial. Some of them can be used in the national economy. This applies not only to the fission fragments, radioactive products such as 90Sr, 137CS 144Ce, 147Pm, but also to isotopes specially obtained by neutron bombardment, such as 60Co, 99Mo, 170Tm, and 210Po when,. as a rule, lighter isotopes of these same elements are used as targets. The transuranic elements comprise a separate group of radio- active elements. The use of radioactive isotopes in the national economy of the Soviet Union is expanding every year. It is now difficult to name any branch of science, technology, industry, agriculture, medicine, etc. in which these true friends of man do not operate. The technology and reliable production capability for the majority of radioisotopes and stable isotopes of practical use have now been developed in the Soviet Union. The production list of the Isotop All-Union Combine exceeded 3300 in 1975, including: Compounds of radioactive tracer isotopes ....................1034 Compounds with stable isotopes ............................. 718 Sources of a, 0,y, and neutron radiation ...................... 1622 This product list is based on 156 radioactive and 240 stable isotopes [11, 121. By employing such a emitters as 210Po, 238Pu, and 239Pu a large number of sources can be produced for use as radioisotope static neutralizers in the textile, printing, rubber, photographic-film, and other indus- tries. Radioisotope signal fire-fighting equipment is widely employed in the USSR, in which isotopes of plutonium are used in indicator amounts. The total output of these devices in 1975 was 300,000 units. There are 246 types of 0-radiation sourcesbasedon 11 isotopes, including tritium, 14C, 60Co, 85Kr, 106Ru, 144Ce, 147Pm , and 204T1. These sources are manufactured with awide range of activities from 0.015 micro- curie to 300 curies. There is a large assortment of sources of y and x radiation varying both in radiation power and physical dimensions. The isotopes of plutonium, 210Po and 252Cf,are widely employed in the manufacture of neutron sources. Plutonium-beryllium sources have an intensity up to 5.107, polonium-beryllium up to 4' 108, and californ- ium from 1.5. 107 to 1 ?109 neutrons/sec. The use of radioactive isotopes can develop along three main directions: 1. As radioactive indicators (the tracer-atom method). Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 2. As sources of penetrating radiation for use in radioisotope instruments for automatic monitoring and regulation of industrial processes and as radioactive fuel. 3. As powerful sources of ionizing radiation for acting directly on materials to initiate various reac- ions and changes in structure. The tracer-atom method is a powerful research tool which can enable us to uncover many complex processes taking place in metallurgy, in the chemical and oil industries, and machine manufacturing, to de- termine the nature of the activity of plants, animals, and human beings, to obtain a picture of the move- ments of ground water and rivers, and to define the regional distribution of agricultural pests. The method is widely used in both science and technology, in which it can be used, e.g., to determine the rate of wear in machines. There are 740 compounds used as radioactive indicators, marked by various radioactive iso- topes, including 14C (300 compounds), 3H (125 compounds), 32P (36 compounds), 35S (50 compounds), and 36CI (20 compounds). Radioisotope instruments are extensively employed in the national economy. One of their main ad- vantages in relation to monitoring and measuring instruments based on other principles lies in the absence of any contact with the material or agent being tested. Radioisotope instruments possess high sensitivity and a high speed of reaction, they are indispensable for determining the characteristics of explosion-proof and flame-proof materials, chemically aggressive liquids and gases, and viscous or friable materials. In the chemical and oil refining industries, radioisotope instruments enable us to exercise direct monitoring and regulation of the level of acids and alkalis in nontransparent reservoirs, to follow processes at high temperatures and pressures. to determine the concentrations of materials in solution, etc. In metallurgy, radioisotope instruments have been successfully used to automate the process of charging blast furnaces, check the level and overflow of metals, simultaneously observe the wear in the linings of open-hearth furnaces, and provide direct monitoring of the thickness of rolled sections. In the machine-manufacturing industry, radioisotope instruments make it possible to monitor the flow of products, ensure the interlocking of plants, etc. In the building industry, hydraulic engineering, and agriculture, radioisotope instruments are exten- sively employed for measuring the density and moisture content of various materials and determining their uniformity. As we have already seen, the introduction of radioisotope neutralizers of static electricity has solved the problem of dumping static charges that arise in various industrial processes and of preventing fires during the transfer of inflammable liquids. Data exist to illustrate their high cost-effectiveness. The an- nual saving achieved by the introduction of one neutralizer in the textiles, printing,and rubber industries is from 1200 to 4000 rubles. The gamma flaw-detection method is used in several fields of industry, enabling us to monitor the quality of welded joints in high-pressure boilers and lines, and to detect fractures in the reinforcement rods of ferroconcrete structures, blowholes and cracks in metal parts and castings. The percentage distribution of radioisotope instruments by branches of industry is as follows. Machine manufacturing ................................... 16.6 Foodstuffs ............................................... 13.4 Metallurgical ............................................ 12.8 Mining .................................................. 11.7 Chemical ................................................ 11.1 Light industry ............................................ 9.0 Building ................................................ 8.5 Other fields of industry ................................... 16.9 Certainly, these figures might change due to renewal of the instrument catalog; they do, however, re- flect clearly the range of uses of this form of atomic technology in the national economy. When selecting isotopes for radiation sources, it is advisable to consider not only the type of decay and the radiant energy, but also characteristics such as specific generation, projected period of service, and the chances of obtaining large quantities of the isotope. Table 3 gives some of the characteristics of the basis isotopes which are suitable for use as radio- active fuel and other purposes. Bearing in mind the fact that isotopes with half lives from 100 days to 100 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 Fig. 2. Surface equipment for 50,000 m3 condenser created by an underground nu- clear explosion. yr are used as energy sources, only 14 isotopes are given, all of which are available in large quantities [12]. When choosing a suitable operating life for the isotope sources, it is necessary to take into account the radiation stability and thermal stability of the chemical compounds, together with those of the fuel ampoules, and the actual ser- vice life to be expected of the device itself. Table 3 gives data on 60Co,137Cs, 192Ir, 170Tm, as well as 75Se, 241Am, and others which are used for monitoring the quality of products made of steel and other materials by the gamma flaw-detection method. This method has become one of the principal methods of nondestructive testing of ma- terials and manufactured products, and is suitable for a wide range of thicknesses, from 0.5 to 200-250 mm steel equiva- lent. In recent years, radioactive isotopes have found wider application as powerful sources of ionizing radiation in direct action on various processes and materials for the purposes of improving manufacturing techniques and obtaining new materials and compounds to meet the needs of modern technology. The heat resistance of polymer materials and products made from rubber can be greatly improved by irradiation; the strength of wood can be increased and the quality of cotton fabric improved. The first in- dustrial radiation-chemical plants have been set up and operated successfully at Volgograd, Kazan, Grozny, Podol'ski, and other industrial centers. In agriculture and the food industry, ionizing radiation offers the possibility of increasing yields, accelerating the breeding of new types of plant, and increasing the storage life of food products. Tests car- ried out under production conditions using presowing radiation methods and radiation treatment of products have given encouraging results at a number of installations. The use of manufacturing methods based on radioactive isotopes enable us to achieve significant eco- nomies each year in many fields of the national economy. In medicine, radioactive isotopes and nuclear radiation have been successfully used in the diagnosis of complex illnesses, for the treatment of malignant tumors, for the radiation sterilization of materials, instruments, and medicinal preparations. The Izotop combine is currently supplying more than 35 radiopharmaceutical preparations to medi- cal institutes in the Soviet Union and abroad, while more than 37 preparations are undergoing medical trials. The isotopes 1311, 198Au, 32P, 133Xe, and 99Tc are of greatest use in radioisotope diagnostics and therapy. About 650 institutes and medical establishments in the Soviet Union employ tracer preparations based on radioactive isotopes, designed for medical or medicobiological purposes. Stable isotopes such as 2H, 15N, 13C, and 180 are also employed in chemistry and biology for studying the mechanisms of chemical reaction and the replacement processes of materials and living organisms. Atomic science and technology enable us to create full-scale production of isotopes in the Soviet Union by various methods and to expand the production base of radioactive and stable isotopes, tracer compounds, instruments, and equipment using isotope radiation sources. Isotopes produced in the USSR are exported to 32 countries. Employing the Energy of PSaceful Atomic Explosions In recent years, several countries, including the USSR, USA, UK, and France, have studied the possi- bility of using nuclear blasts for peaceful purposes. This problem has been studied at four conferences, organized by MAGATE in 1970-1975 [13]. Specialists have showed conclusively that peaceful nuclear ex- plosions, having exceptionally high concentrations and low specific energy costs, can be used to create new processes in the construction and mining industries, and also for scientific investigations. These would not present any danger to the population or the environment in the sense of seismic or radiation hazards,. provided certain rules were observed [14]. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 Fig. 3. Approximate arrangement of the main works for transferring part of the flow of the northern rivers into the Volga basin [21]: 1_) Perchoro-Kolvinsk canal: 1) northern section (River Pechora to Lake Chusovskoe); 2) southern section (Lake Chusovskoe to River Kolba); o ) planned sites of dams. Considerable interest exists within the USSR in the future possibilities of using peaceful nuclear explosions for carrying out large civil-engineering works or developing use- ful mineral resources spread over vast expanses of terri- to ry. Depending on the degree of study involved, the techno- logy of peaceful nuclear explosions can be divided into three groups: industrial, experimental, and research. The first group relates to such examples of industrial or experimental-industrial uses of explosions as the elimina- tion of dangerous gushers of natural gas, increasing the rate of oil extraction, the creation of subterranean cavity reser- voirs in solid rock salt and open reservoirs for storing wa- te r. Underground nuclear explosions have been successfully used in the USSR to stop-up accidental natural-gas blowholes. The flow from one of these reached 12 million m3/day, and for a long time it was impossible to stop this by conventional methods. A 30-kton nuclear explosion at a depth of 1550 m permanently closed off the shaft of the blowhole [15, 16]. Experimental explosions have been set off to speed up the production of oil. A long period of operation of the site after three explosions had been set off showed that the prod- uction rate was 27-60%greater than expected. due to the creation of artificial fissuring [15]. An artificial reservoir for water, with a total capacity of about 20 million m3, was formed by an excavating nuclear explosion with a yield of over 100 kton; the visible crater had a total volume of about 7 million m3. The demand for reservoirs has greatly increased over the last ten years due to the rapid development of the gas, oil-refining, and other industries. The search for more- effective methods of creating reservoirs has lead to trials with camouflet nuclear explosions in solid rock salt. Due to the elastoplastic properties of rock salt, it is possible in this way to create large stable chambers (Table 4). Figure 2 shows the surface equipment for a condenser reservoir created in the solid rock salt at a depth of 1140 m by a nuclear explosion of about 15 kton. The chamber has a volume of about 50,000 m3 and operates under a pressure of about 80 atm, created by gas from the gas line, the condensate being extracted at the- surface [17]. Successful operation of this condenser reservoir illustrates its advantages compared with metal reservoirs built on the surface: the cost of construction is less by a factor of 3-5 than a conven- tional reservoir, the cost in metal is lower by a factor of 10-20, the construction time is several times less, and the industrial land use is lower by a factor of hundreds. Furthermore, the cost of ensuring safe opera- tion of the reservoir is greatly reduced [18]. Starting with a defined yield of explosion, this method is more advantageous, and at the same time more universally applicable, than the method by which chambers are washed out of the solid rock salt. Constructing reservoirs by means of nuclear explosions is more effective in regions of new industrial de- velopment before the actual construction stage is reached, as in these cases more powerful explosions can be used and the reservoir can be sited near to the factories themselves. The second group relates to explosions which can be used in the construction of large hydraulic works (canals) and for stripping areas of their useful minerals. Plans of this nature are known to include the construction of the Pechorb-Kolvinsk canal in the USSR, the Orinoko-Rio Negro canal in Venezuela,and the Kra in Thailand. It has been calculated that the use of underground nuclear explosions during the construc- tion of these canals would considerably reduce the cost and the time needed for construction [19]. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 4. Photograph of the development of group underground nuclear blasts on the route of the Pechoro-Kolvinsk canal. Fig. 5. "Bulat" equipment for producing wear-resistant coatings. TABLE 5. Basic Characteristics of Mo- The article "Rational utilization and protection of wa- bile Equipment for Neutron-Activation ter resources" [201 reports on large-scale works that have Analysis [241 been carried out in the USSR to redistribute the pattern of ti river flows by transferring water to regions with a deficit ' o o L on their water-economy balance. The advantages are stressed of transferring part of the flow of northern rivers 9 g g into the Volga basin, to the extent of 20-25 km3/yr (40-50 H 5 z o. a ? e x w km3/yr in the future), which would be equivalent to increasing NGI-1, 2 80-140 1.5-2 3.107 3.108 1-10 the flow of the Volga by 15-20%. The creation of the 112.5- NGI-4 110 1-1,5 0.8.10' 1,5.108 1-33 km Pechoro-Kolvinsk canal (Fig. 3) basically reflects this NGI-5 150 1,5 0,6.108 6.108 1-10 problem, and envisages the growing demand for water in the central and southern regions of the European part of the USSR being met, the level of the Caspian Sea being stabilized, and the output of electricity from the Volga hydroelectric cascade being increased. It is proposed to construct the northern section of the canal (65 km long, useful crass-sectional area 3000 m2) by means of nuclear blasts. About half of this section passes through a zone of flooded alluvial deposits. No experience in the creation of channels in this type of ground is available, so there was considerable doubt as to mechanical effects of an explosion, the stability of the banks of any channel formed, and the seismic and radiation effects. In order to study these problems, an exceptional blast was set off under similar geological conditions [13, 22]. Three charges of 15 kton were used in the experiment, in three boreholes at a depth of about 128 m. The distances between the boreholes were 163.1 and 167.5 m. Figure 4 shows a general view of the development of a blast 5 sec after the charges were detonated. The blast formed a channel 700 m long, 340 m wide, and from 10 tol5mdeep. The sides of the channel were formed at an incline of 8-10%and these have shown practically no alteration with time. Thus, for the first time it was shown to be possible to form large channels with sufficiently stable banks in a thick cover of weakly flooded ground [221. A project has been developed for the intensification of mining for useful minerals using nuclear blasts. In the project, large deposits of light metals on the northeast frontier of the Soviet Union can, ac- cording to preliminary estimates, be stripped by open-cut mining techniques of up to 900 million m3 of rocky ground [15]. The third group contains the most complex fields of use of nuclear blasts: the distillation of oil from shales, the leaching of copper from deposits, the release of geothermal energy, the creation of reservoirs for hazardous and radioactive waste products, etc. Plans exist for the utilization of blasts for scientific purposes [13]. Peaceful nuclear explosions represent a new field of application of atomic energy, requiring further, more detailed investigation. There are grounds to suppose that their potential is neither fully realized nor exhausted. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 U CIS v> Power in beam, kW w E C o- Weight, o ` ,. av. impulse o a'0 5i E E a c6 Size, m tons T U G N U U 7.Y o . Ow w E N N Q n 5 RTD -1 Resonant transformer 1,0 3 18 60 0.2.5 910,0;:.1.5 1,9 )lektron-1 Transformer 0,7 7 7 - y 0,7 x 3.0 110 9LIT-500 The same 0,5 1 700 18 - 0.3 x 0.5 0.04 IT-1 ? ? 1,0 8 10000 360 - 00.4x0.6 0.12 IT-3 >.,> 2,5 10 40000 01,0 x1.3 0,8 ELT,-2 ? ? 1,5 25 215 - - 01,3x 2.4 7,0 KGE-2,5 Cascade generator 2,5 20 20 - - , 3,0 x 6.2 3210 LU9-8-5V Linear accelerator 8,0 5 3500 - - 5,Ox0,7x1,75 2,0 (emitter) LU9-13-9 The same 13,0 9 11000 - - 5,5x1.5x2,35 5,0 (emitter) LUE-10-1 10,0 1 1000 2000 1,5 2,75x1,0x0.8 2.0 (e LU E-15 15,0 1,5 1500 10000 2,0 4.5x1,5x2,0 5,5 (emitter) B-25 Betatron 25,0 - - 40 - - 2,5 B-35 The same 35,0 - - 250 - - 5,0 B-50 50,0 - - 800 - - 20,0 Fig. 6. Implantation equipment type ILU-4 for surface alloying. The problem of disposing of radioactive wastes is of great significance to the development of the atomic industry. One of the most promising ways of solving this problem, according to the results of many years experience, is by the disposal of solutions containing radioactive matter in underground absorbent beds in the Dimitrovgrad region [23]. The results of this trial were put to partial use on factories of the USSR Ministry of the Chemical Industry. Absorbent strata have been found in the vicinity of several chemical combines and turned, without the use of nuclear blasts, into proving grounds for underground burial of concentrates from chemical treatment of toxic materials. Table 4 gives the volumes of underground reservoirs produced by means of experimen- tal nuclear blasts. These give us reason to suppose that in regions where there are no underground absor- bent strata it would be possible to create underground chambers by means of nuclear blasts for burying dangerous and radioactive wastes. This supposition stems from hydrogeological and engineering-geological questions concerning the radiation possibilities of the underground vaults used for industrial waste prod- ucts. The development of nuclear physics, plasma physics, solid-state physics, and atomic materials has not merely created a scientific foundation for atomic engineering, it has also actively facilitated the intro- duction of the so-called "fall-out products" or by-products of these branches of science in the national economy. For example, until quite recently, charged-particle accelerators have been used only for re- search into nuclear physics. As their design improved, however, it became clear that accelerators could be employed in various branches of the national economy. In industry, agriculture, and medicine charged- Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 Fig. 7. An atomic building in the USSR. A general view of the construction of the Armyansk nuclear power station. Photograph by V. Bratchikov. particle accelerators are finding even wider applications, the accelerator developed by the D. V. Efremov NIIEFA, for example. Activation analysis is widely used in geological surveying and metallurgy for determining the con- tents of various elements. Neutron-activation methods employing accelerators have been used to analyze contaminants during the production of very-pure structural materials. The test material is irradiated by neutrons formed by bombarding special targets with accelerated electrons. The neutrons activate contami- nants present in the test material, forming short-lived isotopes, by the study of which it is possible quickly to determine the presence of certain elements with a sensitivity measured in hundred-thousandths of a percent. The time needed for analysis is greatly reduced and fewer laboratory technicians are needed. Table 5 gives the characteristics of a number of devices used in the national economy. Neutron generators of type NG-150 are used in stationary laboratories. These have a flux of about 1011 neutrons/see. In addition to neutron generators, y-radiation sources, hydrogen-ion, deuterium-ion, and helium-ion accelerators are also used for activation analysis. A great deal of attention has been devoted during the last ten years to the problems of designing accelerators for use in flaw detectors and radiation engineering processes, and also in medicine. Such accelerators have a number of advantages over cobalt sources: a. They enable us to obtain bremsstrahlung having a higher penetration and with doses in the hundreds of rads/min ? m at a distance of up to 1 m from the target. b. Besides brehmsstrahlung, we can obtain beams of electrons, protons, mesons, etc. with energies ranging from hundreds of kiloelectrovolts to hundreds of megaelectronvolts. c. They enable us to form uniform dosage fields with the clean boundaries needed for therapy, for example. d. They ensure radiation safety as far as auxiliary operations are concerned; e.g., there is no need to periodically reload and bury spent highly radioactive charges. Radiologists throughout the world are especially interested in the linear electron accelerator, as this is very simple in design compared with other types of accelerator, the introduction and extraction of parti- cles is very simple, and the energy and power of the radiation doses can be regulated. They can produce powerful doses (not just at high energies but over the whole energy range) in large highly uniform fields. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 Linear accelerators have been created for flaw detection at energies of 6-9 MeV with bremsstrahlung intensities of 300-1500 R/min and an energy of 15 MeV with intensities of up to 10,000 R/min (types LUE- 10-1, LUE-15-1.5). Flaw detector accelerators are able to penetrate steel products to depths of more than 400 mm, due to their high power and the penetrating ability of the x rays they generate. Linear accelera- tors for flaw detectors with energies of 6-9 MeV have been successfully operated at the Izhorsk factory at Kolpino, enabling the test time to be reduced by a factor of 10-12 compared to the cobalt equipment used previously, and increasing the visibility of flaws in product thicknesses of more than 150 mm. Linear accelerators have been manufactured for sterilizing medical instruments, enabling the degree of sterilization to be increased; expendible medical instruments to be put into mass production, ready for immediate use (hypodermic syringes, catheters, blood-transfusion systems, etc.); cheap plastics, which are unable to withstand thermal sterilization, to be used for the manufacture of instruments; antibiotics to be sterilized which are unable to withstand any method of sterilization other than radiation. Two linear accelerators have been built for the medicinal preparations factory at Kurgan. Linear accelerators are now being built with energies in the 5-30 MeV range, for treating cancers by braking (x ray) radiation and electron beams. Such accelerators have been successfully used in medical- research institutes at Moscow, Kiev, Minsk, and Obninsk. The use of linear accelerators for treating cancer shows that they possess greater biological effectiveness than cobalt radiation sources. Experience of operation (the accelerator at the Central Institute for the Improvement of Medicine has been operating since 1966) and the achievements of accelerator technology have enabled a new improved therapeutic linear accelerator to be built with an energy of 15 MeV, which has good characteristics, is easy to control, and is designed for quantity production [24]. The Tire Industry Research Institute has operated a linear electron accelerator manufactured by the NIIEFA with an energy of 7-8 MeV and a power of 3.5-5.0 kW. The accelerator is designed for studying the technology of radiation vulcanization of rubber tires with the aim of increasing the service life of automo- bile tires. Table 6 gives the basic types of accelerators used in various fields of the national economy. Furthermore, intensive beams of heavy ions can be used to produce materials with new properties, study radiation damage in materials, and carry out tests on structural materials relatively quickly. By irradiating thin films with heavy ions it is possible to produce nuclear filters having apertures with diameters from 20-40 A up to several hundreds of microns. The Joint Institute of Nuclear Research (JINR) has developed the technology for producing these films and for creating special equipment. Nuclear filters are now being tried out in a number of organizations, as their fields of application are diverse. Thermonuclear investigations being carried out at the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy (IAE) and the KhFTI have also found applications in the national economy. The KhFTI have developed a plasma method of obtaining materials with new properties by condensation of matter from the vapor phase in a vacuum while at the same time being bombarded with ions. This method is based on the properties of a low-voltage electric are in a vacuum. As the arc burns, the material of the cathode is vaporized. At the same time, the cathode effect creates a rapid flow of the plasma formed during ionization of the cathode. The substrate (component, instrument, or material), on which it is desired to deposit the coating, is held at a negative potential, so that the plasma ions bombard a layer of condensate on the substrate. The KhFTI has developed on industrial equipment type."Bulat" (Damask steel) which produces high-tempera- ture wear-resistant coatings and materials with good physical, technical, and mechanical properties. Tests have shown that durability of a cutting tool reinforced in this way is 2.5 to 5 times greater on the average. At present, the technology of reinforcing and hardening metal-cutting tools by the ion-bombardment-in-a- vacuum method is being introduced on a number of factories in various fields of industry [25]. In the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy implantation equipment type ILU-4 has been de- veloped for the surface alloying of semiconductors and other materials by the ion-bombardment method. The equipment is in quantity production and is being used for semiconductor studies and investigation of radia- tion effects in solid bodies [26]. About 50 such devices are now in successful operation, some of them in Bulgaria, Hungary, and the German Democratic Republic. 1. V. A. Kurillin, Priroda, No. 3, 6 (1975). 2. Ten Years Experience in the Operation of the Novovoronezh Atomic Power Station [in Russian], Novovoronezh (1974). Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 3. L. M. Voronin and E. Yu. Zharkovskii, At. Energ., 38, No. 2, 113 (1975). 4. A. I. Leipunskii, At. Energ., 28, No. 4, 297 (1970). 5. F. Girardi, G. Bertesi, EUR-5214, Ispra (1974). 6. A. M.Petrosyants, From Scientific Research to an Atomic Industry [in Russian], Atomizdat, Moscow (1972). 7. Atomic Engineering 20 Years On [in Russian], Atomizdat, Moscow (1974). 8. S. V. Bryunin, At. Tekh. za Rubezhom, No. 6, 20 (1974). 9. Soviet Atomic Science and Technology [in Russian], Atomizdat, Moscow (1967). 10. A. P. Zefirov, Questions of Atomic Science and Technology [in Russian], in The Enrich- ment and Metallurgy of Uranium, No. 1, Part 2, TsNIlatominform,,Moscow (1971). 11. "Forms of isotope production supplied by the 'Isotop' combine and some of their fields of applica- tion," paper' V/O Isotop on its seminar in Budapest (April 1975). 12. In: Production of Isotopes [in Russian], Atomizdat, Moscow (1973). 13. "Peaceful nuclear explosions," Byull. MAGATE, No. 2, April (1975). 14. Yu. A. Izrael', Peaceful Nuclear Explosions and the Environment [in Russian], Gidrometeoizdat, Moscow (1974). 15. I. D. Morokhov (editor), Atomic Explosions for Peaceful Purposes [in Russian], Atomizdat, Moscow (1970). 16. 0. L. Kedrovskii et al., in: Peaceful Nuclear Explosions II, Vienna, IAEA (1971), p. 209. 17. K. V. Myasnikov et al., in: Peaceful Nuclear Explosions III, Vienna, IAEA (1974), p. 179. 18. O. L. Kedrovskii et al., in: Peaceful Nuclear Explosions IV, Vienna, IAEA (1975), p. 227. 19. I. D. Morokhov et al., At. Energ., 39, No. 2, 148 (1975). 20. I. Borodavchenko and 0. Tolstikhin, Kommunist, No. 14, 42 (1975). 21. "Ideas on the peaceful use of nuclear explosions in the USSR," Byull. MAGATE, No. 2 (1970). 22. V. V. Kireev et al., in: Peaceful Nuclear Explosions IV, Vienna, IAEA (1975), p. 399. 23. M. K. Pimenov, in: Investigations in the Field of the Disposal of Liquid, Solid, and Gaseous Radio- active Waste and the Deactivation of Contaminated Surfaces [in Russian], Proceedings of a Scientific and Technical Conference of the SEV, Poland, Kolobzheg, October (1972), pp. 2-7. 24. V. A. Glukhikh, Reprint NIIEFA, P-0165, Leningrad (1972). 25. The Physics and Use of Plasma Accelerators [in Russian], Nauka i Tekhnika, Minsk (1974). 26. V. M. Gusev et al., Pribory i Tekh. Eksperim., No. 4, 9 (1969). Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 EXPERIENCE IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE POWER REACTORS IN THE USSR N. A. Dollezhal' and I. Ya. Emel'yanov UDC 621.039.577 In the directives of the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, among the problems related to the development of power generation in the country, reference was made to the need to put into operation during the 1970-1975 period the Leningrad Atomic Power Station (LAPS), which will have a capa- city of 2,000,000 kW. This means a very substantial introduction of nuclear-fission energy into electrical power generation in the coming years. The task assinged by the directives was fulfilled: The first reactor, with an electrical power of 1,000,000 kW, began operation in December 1973 and achieved full power by the 57th anniversary of the October Revolution; the second reactor, identical with the first, went into operation in August 1975, and by December 1975 its power output was approximately 900 MW. The second reactor will also undoubtedly achieve full designed power in the near future. The LAPS. named for the great Lenin, is equipped with channel-type uranium-graphite reactors (RBMK), which have been described repeatedly in the literature [1-4]. The theoretical and engineering principles of this reactor were developed and tested in practice in the Soviet Union, and therefore it can rightfully be regarded as a Soviet type of reac- tor. The construction and introduction into operation of the LAPS reactors means that one more important landmark has been passed in the process of improving and developing this type of reactor, the conception of which dates from the late 1940's, when the first such reactors were constructed, including the reactor of the world's first atomic power station at Obninsk. The next landmark was the start-up in 1958 of the reactor of the Siberian Atomic Power Station, a film of which was shown, in particular, to the participants in the 2nd International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, held at Geneva in the same year. After this, in 1964, the channel-type uranium-graphite reactor of the I. V. Kurchatov Atomic Power Station at Beloyarsk was put into operation. In 1967 a second reactor, with an electrical power of 200,000 kW, was started up at Beloyarsk. These reactors, based essentially on the same technological idea, differ in principle in that, first of all, their fuel channels are cooled by boiling water and, second of all, the steam generated is superheated in special channels in the same reactor. More than 12 years of operation of the reactors of the Beloyarsk APS have confirmed the viability of such a solution. It should be noted that such solutions, carried to the point of satisfactory results, do not exist in any other country in the world, despite many attempts that have been made. Nuclear superheating of steam before it enters the turbine is a very tempting idea, since it not only prevents the danger of wet steam entering the turbine but also makes it pos- sible to do without the intermediate moisture separators and without superheating of the steam between turbine stages, which in turn makes it possible to simplify the production of steam in the reactor. For tur- bines with large power, e.g., over 800 MW, which may be required in the construction of large atomic power stations, the initial superheating of the steam makes it practical to use a speed of 3000 rpm instead of the 1500 rpm now used in operation with saturated steam. Another significant fact is that the efficiency of the entire installation is improved. The reactors of the LAPS, like those of a number of other APS now under construction, have no channels for the superheating of steam and produce dry steam, obtained in channels with boiling water in a single-loop scheme and transmitted directly to the turbine. As a consequence of this, it is necessary to in- clude between the stages of the turbine a number of moisture separators and steam superheaters. The next stage in the improvement of channel-type uranium -graphite reactors will undoubtedly be the introduction into the active zone of channels for the superheating of the steam. This will come with the next generation of reactors. They will have an electrical power of 2-3 million kW; the reliable operation of such reactors will be based on the experience obtained in the operation of reactors now under construction, with the com- plex physics of their large active zones and with the use of modern computers for detecting at the proper Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 117-126, February, 1976. Original article submitted November 14, 1975. ?1 9 76 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N. Y. 10011. No part of this publication maybe reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 Fig. 1. Theoretical thermal scheme of the LAPS: 1) ventilation stack; 2) set gas- holder; 3) storing gasholder; 4) helium-cleaning unit; 5) KGO system; 6) monitor- ing of integrity of technological channels; 7) compressor; 8) gas-loop condenser; 9) SUZ pump-heat exchange installation; 10) separators; 11) regulating assem- blies; 12) fuel channel; 13) SUZ channel; 14) TsVN-7 pump (4 pumps); 15) pre- cooler; 16) regenerators; 17) cooling pumps; 18) separators; 19) APN tanks; 20) emergency feed pump; 21) compressed air; 22) emergency cooling system of the reactor; 23) bubblers; 24) technological condensers; 25) separator-superheaters; 26) TG-1 turbogenerator; 27) TG-2 cleaning; 28) condensers; 29) KN-I conden- sate pumps; 30) condensate cleaning; 31) units for ignition of explosive mixture; 32) KN-1I condensate pumps; 33) low-pressure preheaters; 34) deaerators (7 atm); 35) electrical feed pumps. time the phenomena going on in the active zones and the effects on the automatic control devices. We must believe that scientific and technical progress in the next few years, particularly in the fields of metallurgy, physical chemistry, and instrument design, will lead to the realization of these ideas as early as the next 5-10 years. The theoretical thermal scheme of the V. I. Lenin APS is shown in Fig. 1. It is a single-loop scheme, which differs from the known schemes for boiling reactors. The difference lies only in the design of the reactor, in the present case an RBNK-1000 channel-type uranium-graphite reactor. In estimating the advantages of this type of reactor, the following considerations are weighed: the existence of extensive experience in the construction andoperation of such reactors; the absence of any specific and new tech- nological processes, so that it is possible to get orders filled by the machine-construction industry without unduly great expense for the retooling of factories, and consequently, without requiring very long delivery times; the possibility of constructing reactors of any dimension by using mass-produced elements and assemblies, i.e., there are practically no limitations on the increase of the unit power of the channel reac- tors; the structural separation of the moderator and the coolant, making possible a fairly flexible choice of the substances and materials used for them, thereby ensuring effective heat removal in the active zone, with good neutron balance; the possibility of recharging an operator reactor with fuel without reducing the power, thus improving the economic indicators of the atomic power station, since in this case there is practically no need of a reactivity excess for fuel burnup; the simplification of the system for monitoring the condition of each channel, and the possibility of operational replacement of fuel assemblies which have developed leaks; the fact that the cooling loop of the reactor consists of many smaller loops of small- diameter pipe, improving the safety of the installation; the possibility of easily adapting the reactors to the conditions of the fuel market; the possibility of continuously introducing new structural elements and as- semblies, with the use of the most modern advances in nuclear-fuel and reactor-material production tech- nology; the convenience and simplicity of introducing nuclear superheating of steam into the scheme of the APS. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 Fig. 2. Overall view of the LAPS in operation. Photo by V. Volkov. The development of channel-type uranium-graphite reactors is inextricably connected with progress in the technology of reactor materials. The problem that had to be solved was that of constructing a power reactor with a satisfactory fuel cycle and, at the same time, a fairly satisfactory efficiency for the power station as a whole. This required, above all, new structural materials which would retain their strength to high temperatures and would have a low cross section of neutron absorption. Such materials - zirconium- based alloys for the structure of the channels - were produced. As in the case of the Beloyarsk APS, a one-loop thermal scheme was adopted for the RBMK reactors, and ordinary boiling water was selected as the coolant. This solution was based on many years of experience with the operation of boiling reactors. The cylindrical stacking of an RBMK reactor consists of individual graphite columns with axial cavi- ties which contain the fuel channels and the SUZ channels. A fuel channel is a tubular construction whose Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 Fig. 3. Machine room of the TAPS. central position, situated in the active zone and made of ?a zirconium alloy, is joined to the upper and lower parts, which are made of stainless steel, by means of special adapters. The fuel channel contains a cas- sette with two heat-generating assemblies, each of which consists of 18 fuel elements. A fuel element is a zirconium-alloy tube measuring 13.5 x 0.9 mm and filled with pellets of uranium dioxide. The active zone, 11.7 m in diameter and 7 m high, contains about 1,700 fuel channels with 195 SUZ channels. The coolant is water introduced from below into each channel, heated to the boiling point, and partly vaporized in the active zone. The resulting steam -water mixture is removed from each channel into the separators. The saturated steam at a pressure of 70 atm is directed to two turbines, rated at 500,000 kW each, and the separated water, mixing with the feed water, is delivered by the main circulation pumps to the inlets of the channels through a system of distributing collectors. The reactor is equipped with: a con- trol and protection system which, on predetermined signals, takes the reactor to different power levels, until it has reached the subcritical state; a system of physical monitoring of the distribution of energy generation with respect to the height and radius of the active zone; a system for monitoring the tightness of the seal of the fuel-element jackets; a system of channel-by-channel monitoring and regulation of the coolant flow rate; a system for monitoring the integrity of the channels in the reactor. Because there are so many parameters to be monitored, an automatic system of centralized monitoring is used, making it possible to measure and record the parameters of each block. The system includes a digital computer for processing the information and for the operational calculation of a number of parameters that are important in the running of the reactor. The working design for the RBMK reactor was completed in 1969, and the factories began to construct the reactor in the same year. Construction work on the site was begun in 1968, and the installation of the equipment began in March, 1971. On September 10, 1973 the first heat-generating assembly was charged into the reactor, and physical startup was begun. The construction of the world's largest channel-type nuclear reactor in such a short time was possible because the engineers and technicians had behind them more than 20 years of experience in the successful operation of such reactors. The physical start-up pro- cess included charging of the channels with fuel assemblies and rods of additional absorbers. At a number of specified intermediate states, the reactor was brought.to criticality in order to carry out experiments in determining its neutron-physics characteristics. As a result, the initial charge of the active zone was formed, the reactivity effects.and the effectiveness of the control rods were determined, and recommenda- tions were worked out for the manner in which the control rods should be withdrawn when the reactor was brought up to power. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 Fig. 4. Discharging and charging machine for the RBMK-1000. From November 14 to December 21, 1973 power start-up on the first block of the LAPS was carried out and the process of bringing it up to rated power was begun. In the earliest stages, the criterion for safe operation of the active zone was the condition that the possibility of a heat-exchange crisis had to be precluded in the channel with maximum power and minimum water flow rate. The power of the block was increased by consecutive stages to 500 MW, and in the spring of 1974, after a second turbogenerator was connected, the power was increased to 600 MW. During this period special attention was paid to the in- vestigation of the energy generation fields in their active zone and to their equalization and stabilization. For monitoring the state of the active zone before the regular, system was brought into operation, the LAPS staff used a complex.of programs of physical and heat-engineering calculations, prepared for an external computer but using as the initial data the readings of the energy-generation monitoring sensors, flow-rate meters, control-rod position indicators, etc. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 Fig. 5. Arrangement of equipment in the RBMKP-2000 (cross section). The calculations were used in determining the distribution of power and excess values before a crisis in the reactor channels; the coolant was distributed in the channels in accordance with the power values. In July 1974 the block was raised to a power of about 800 MW. At this power level the staff finally adjusted and put into operation the regular system of operational monitoring of the state of the active zone, making use of design algorithms for the calculation of excesses before a crisis and the calculation of heat-engi- neering reliability. On November 1, 1974 the leading block with the RBMK reactor was brought to the nominal power value of 1 million W. All the basic parameters of the reactor and the block as a whole agreed with the design values. The equipment of the second block of the LAPS was installed two years later. In May 1975 charging of the reactor began and physical start-up took place, and the block was brought to a power level of about 800 MW by October. Figure 2 shows an overall view of the V. I. Lenin APS at Leningrad in operation. Figure 3 shows an overall view of the machine room, with four K-500-65 turbines. The experience ob- tained in the process of starting up the first block made it possible to reduce to less than half the length of time required for the main stages of the process of bringing the second block up to power. One may expect that the period of start-up and adjustment operations can be shortened even more. For this it will be necessary to formulate typical programs optimized on the basis of the results obtained in the adjustment and startup of the first blocks, as was done, for example, in the program entitled "Physical startup of an APS with reactors of the RBMK type." The amount of start-up and adjustment work must be determined by tests of the installed equipment and complex testing programs, and obviously only those of the investigative operations should be used which, during the work on the previous blocks, yielded results which are un- acceptable for one reason or another in the given case. The first year of operation of the LAPS has confirmed the high efficiency of the reactor and the main equipment of the station. On the basis of the results obtained in the start-up and adjustment operations, necessary changes were made in the design of some assemblies, the technological scheme, and the regimes of operation, corrections are being made in the design materials, and steps designed to improve the char- acteristics of subsequent blocks using the RBMK reactor are being developed and carried out. During the period of operation, reactor shutdowns were due mainly to the need for removing from the reactor the additional absorbers at the proper time and charging additional fuel into the active zone. After the process Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 Electrical power, MW 1000 1500 2000 Thermal power of the reactor, MW 3200 4800 5400 Efficiency, 31.3 31.3 37.0 Active-zone dimensions, m: height 7 7 6 diameter (or width and length) 11.8 11.8 7.75 x24 No.of channels: vaporizing 1744 steam -superheating 872 Uranium charge, tons 192 189 226 Enrichment, 1.8 1.8 1.8/2.2 Av. uranium burnup in discharged channels, MW days /kg vaporizing channel 18.1 20.2 steam-superheating channel 18.9 Dimensions of fuel-element jackets (diameter x thickness), mm: vaporizing channel 13.5 x 0.9 steam -superheating channel 10x0.3 Material of fuel-element jackets: vaporizing channel Zirconium alloy steam -superheating channel Stainless steel Water flow rate through reactor, tons/h 37,500 29,000 39,300 Pressure in separators, arm 70 70 85 Steam capacity of reactor, tons/h 5800 8800 8580 Steam flow rate of turbine, tons/h 5400 8200 7580 Parameters of steam before turbines: pressure, arm 65 65 65 temperature, ? C 280 280 450 of recharging the channels on the operating reactor by means of a recharging machine (Fig. 4) has been set up, the number of shutdowns will be determined by the graph for conducting planned preventive over- hauls. To sum up, we can list the main problems which were successfully solved in the process of con- structing the RBMK channel-type uranium-graphite reactor: 1. Zirconium alloys - the principal structural material for the active zone - were developed and tested under reactor conditions. 2. A tightly sealed connection between the stainless steel and the zirconium alloy was constructed. 3. A design was worked out for a heat-generating assembly operating in a stable manner in a boiling coolant. 4. Sensors for monitoring the energy generation, to be used inside the zone, were developed, and on the basis of these sensors, systems for the monitoring, control, and stabilization of the energy- generation fields were set up. 5. A system and a set of algorithms for the centralized monitoring and operational estimation of the state of the heat-generating assemblies was worked out by means of a computer. 6. Conditions were worked out for the effective removal of heat from the graphite stack to the coolant. 7. The operating regimes of high-powered nuclear reactors in a complex with a 500-MW turbine us- ing saturated steam were tested. The LAPS is the first of a series of APS with reactors of this type which are being constructed in the USSR. At the present time, work is being completed on the installation of equipment on the first block of the Kursk APS, and intensive preparations are in progress for startup of the reactor. Installation of the reactor on the first block of the Chernobyl APS is in progress, and the construction of the Smolensk APS Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 Fig. 6. Arrangement of equipment in the RBMKP-2000 (ground plan). has begun. Each of these stations will include four blocks with RBMK reactors having an electrical power of 1000 MW each. The decision has been taken to construct a second two-block complex for the LAPS and a number of other APS with RBMK reactors. Soviet channel-type uranium-graphite reactors of the RBMK type, with a unit power of 1000 MW, re- present a step forward in the development of channel reactors. An analysis of the reactor characteristics after the nominal thermal power of 3200 MW is reached showed that there are considerable reserves in the design of the reactor. A number of parameters determining the limiting power of the reactor, such as the temperature of the metal structure and the graphite stacking, actually proved to be somewhat lower than the calculated values. Therefore, the question that naturally arose was whether the power could be increased by making minimal changes in the design of individual assemblies. The idea of such changes was supported by the fact that the main circulation pumps, of the TsVN-7 type, have the necessary reserve in the pres- sure they develop. The designers of the RBMK reactor enthusiastically tackled the task of investigations involving design, calculation, and experimentation to confirm the technical feasibility of this idea and to de- terminetthe allowable limit of the additional power. The most important problem was to increase the criti- cal power of the fuel channel, i.e., the power at which there occurs at the surface of the fuel elements a heat-exchange crisis accompanied by an unacceptable rise in the temperature of the zirconium jacket. This problem was successfully solved by introducing heat-exchange intensifiers into the regular heat-gen- erating assembly. Tests were conducted on a number of variants of intensifier design; the optimal variant was one which used lattice intensifiers with an axial twist in the coolant flow. Such lattices are set up, with a pitch of 80 mm, only on the 3.5-m-long upper heat-generating assembly. Tests on a test stand indicated that the critical power of an RBMK channel with heat-exchange intensifiers is about 1.5 times what it would be without them. After less than one year, in July 1975, the technical design for the RBMK-1500 reactor was brought out; this showed the technical feasibility of increasing the useful power of the RBMK reactor to 1500 MW by intensifying the heat exchange in the fuel channels while keeping unchanged the structure of the reactor as a whole. A number of questions will undoubtedly require further research (e.g., vibration- wear tests of the heat-generating assemblies with intensifiers), but the most important questions were suc- cessfully resolved and technical justification for the decisions was established. The technical design for the RBMK-1500 reactor has been approved, and a decision has been taken to construct APS with reactors of this type. The intensive development of nuclear power and the trend toward increasing the unit power of reac- tors confronts specialists with the problem of working out a design that will make it possible to construct reactors from unified and standardized assemblies, i.e., without restructuring the machine-construction industry base and complicating the installation of the reactor. The possibilities of uranium-graphite channel reactors have made it possible to find ways of solving the problem. The first step in this direc- tion is the design for the RBMKP-2000 section-block channel reactor, with an electrical power of 2000 MW. The distinguishing feature of the design of the RBMKP-2000 is that its shape is not the traditional cylindrical one but that of a rectangular parallepiped consisting of separate sections (Figs. 5 and 6). Through the use of sections of uniform type, it becomes possible to set up a reactor of almost arbitrarily large power using identical arrangements, both for the reactor and for the structural elements of the build- ing [5]. Each section includes the necessary equipment and control and monitoring instruments and con- sists of separate transportable blocks. Special attention should be drawn to the fact that nuclear superheat- ing of steam can be conveniently arranged in a section-block reactor [6]. The vaporizing and steam- Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 superheating sections are uniform in design; the difference lies in the design of the heat-generating assem- blies of the vaporizing and the steam-superheating channels and also in the fact that the vaporizing sections include circulation pumps and separators. The sections may be regarded as independent zones of the reac- tor, in which it is possible to make controlled changes in power within the required limits and there is a certain degree of independence with regard to the cooling-water and steam loops. All of this creates fav- orable conditions for localizing breakdowns and repairing some equipment without shutting down the reac- tor. The RBMKP-2000 reactor consists of eight vaporizing sections, four steam-superheating sections, and two end-face sections. Each section has upper and lower blocks with separation of the pipes, lateral blocks, supports, graphite stacking, and vaporizing or steam-superheating channels. The lateral sections serve essentially as neutron reflectors and are equipped with special cooling channels. In working out the design, maximum use was made of the experience obtained in the construction and operation of the RBMK reactor. The vaporizing and steam- superheating channels of the RBMKP-2000 are practically identical with the channels of the RBMK-1000, i.e., are of tubular construction, with the central portion made of a zirconium alloy. This central portion is connected to the stainless-steel upper and lower portions with similar steel-zirconium adapters. The required temperature conditions of the zirconium tubes of the steam-superheating channels are ensured by slightly superheated steam passing through the annular gap between the shell of the heat-generating assembly and the pressure pipe. The vaporizing and steam-super- heating heat-generating assemblies are identical in construction, but the fuel elements of the steam-super- heating channels are different from the fuel elements of the vaporizing channels: instead of a zirconium- alloy jacket measuring 13.5 x 0.9 mm, they use a stainless-steel jacket with an external diameter of 10 mm and a wall thickness of 0.3 mm. Unlike the RBMK reactor, in which the upper and lower supporting and shielding metal structures are filled with a serpentinite charge with a low thermal conductivity, in the RBMKP-2000 reactor the thermostating is achieved by filling these structures with water. The coolant circulation is achieved as follows. From the deaerator the feed water is fed into the downcomers of the separators, mixed with saturated water, and fed by the circulation pumps into the vaporizing channels of the reactor. From the channels the steam-water mixture enters the separators. The saturated steam is fed into steam-superheating channels, heated to 450?C, and fed at a pressure of 65 atm through steam ducts to two turbines having a power of 1000 MW each. Table 1 shows the main charac- teristics of the RBMK-1000 and RBMK-1500 high-power uranium-graphite channel reactors with a boiling coolant and of the RBMKP-2000 reactor with nuclear superheating of the steam. The special features of channel reactors make it possible to modernize them steadily and continu- ously, and therefore the technical and economic indicators of APS with such reactors will be improved. This is clearly demonstrated by the design for the RBMKP-2000 reactor, which uses the progressive sec- tion-block principle of reactor construction, a principle whose possibilities would be difficult to over- estimate. The successful solution of a number of problems listed below will make possible further im- provements in channel reactors: 1. The development of reactor-materials technology, including the production of high-temperature zirconium alloys which will make it possible to improve the parameters of the vaporizing loop of the reactor and will be usable in steam-superheating channels. 2. Further research on the intensification of heat exchange in channels with a boiling coolant, the de- velopment of various designs for intensifiers, and the experimental verification of their operating capacity. 3. The improvement of the design of channels and heat-generating assemblies with superheating of the steam inside the reactor. 4. The development of means of effective heat removal from the graphite stacking in order to reduce the temperature of the graphite and use nitrogen instead of helium for filling the stacking. 5. The improvement of safety measures at reactor installations as a way to increase the number of circulation loops and reduce the diameter of the pipes, including the development of more effective systems for emergency cooling of the active zone and the localization of coolant leaks. 6. The investigation of possibilities of regulating the reactor by using a liquid absorber. The high reliability of uranium-graphite channel reactors, the relative simplicity of their construc- tion, the possibilities of achieving high safety levels in the event of damage to the pipes of the cooling loop, Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 and the practically unlimited possibilities of increasing power, the possibility of recharging fuel while the reactor is in operation, the flexibility of the fuel cycle, the convenience of introducing nuclear superheating of steam, and a number of other advantages make this Soviet type of reactor one of the most important in the country's large-scale power industry and open favorable prospects for the further improvement and de- velopment of these reactors. 1. A. M. Petros'yants, From Scientific Research Atomic Industry [in Russian], Atomizdat, Moscow (1972). 2. Twenty Years of Atomic Power [in Russian], Atomizdat, Moscow (1974). I. Ya. Emel'yanov et al., in: Experience in the Operation of Atomic Power Stations and Ways to the Further Development of Atomic Power [in Russian], Vol. 2, Izd. FEI. Obninsk (1974), p. 166. 4.. A. P. Aleksandrov et al., ibid. Additional issue, p. 3. 5. N. A. Dollezhal' [3], p. 233. 6. N. A. Dollezhal' et al., Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. Series on Reactor Construction [in Russian], No. 2 (9), TsNIlatominform, Moscow (1974). Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 PHYSICAL STARTUP OF THE RBMK-REACTOR* OF THE SECOND UNIT OF THE V. I. LENIN NUCLEAR POWER STATION, LENINGRAD 1. Ya. Emel'yanov, M. B. Egiazarov, UDC 621.039.519:621.039.524.2.034.44 V. I. Ryabov, A. D. Zhirnov, V. P. Borshchev, B. A. Vorontsov, A. N. Kuz'min, Yu. I. Lavrenov, V. S. Romanenko, Yu. M. Serebrennikov, and A. P. Sirotkin In accordance with the program for the development of nuclear power generation in the Soviet Union, in May to June 1975 the physical start-up was achieved at the reactor of the second unit of the V. I. Lenin Nuclear Power Station, Leningrad (LNPS). The physical start-up program for the reactor of the second unit of the LNPS was based on the results of the physical start-up of the first reactor [11 and provided for a number of comparative experiments during charging of the reactor. Charging of the reactor with fuel as- semblies FA and with auxiliary absorbers AA was carried out with dry multiple forced circulation loops MFC and cooling of the rods of the control and safety system CSS. Although the charged reactor with dry channels, intended for the insertion of fuel assemblies and auxiliary absorbers, does not have the greatest reactivity, this charging principle allowed the multiple forced circulation loop to be prepared for a power start-up, simultaneously with charging of the fuel assemblies. For reliable control over the core and for ensuring safety during charging, a temporary control and safety system was used together with the regular control and safety system. It effected control of the neutron flux, the reactivity and emergency shutdown, and it comprised six emergency shutdown rods (scram rods), four manual controls, and also the neutron source actuator with a control switch and a position indi- cator. The physical start-up program consisted of the following main stages: 1. Composition of the minimum critical charge without auxiliary absorbers and standard control and safety rods (charge No. 1). 2. Completion of zone up to the maximum number of identical polycells, the so-called periodicity cells (loading No. 2, Fig. 1). 3. Additional charging of the reactor up to 1437 fuel assemblies and 239 auxiliary absorbers. ~-- 4. Shaping of the initial charge of the core, taking account of the operating experience from the reac- tor of the first unit. 5. Estimation of the reserve of reactivity of the initial charge, and ensuring the required duration of operation before the first fuel recharging. 6. Determination of the reactivity effects with dry multiple forced circulation loops and with cooling of the control and safety rods. * Water-cooled/water-mode rated channel-type reactor (high-powered). Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 127-132, February, 1976. Original article submitted November 13, 1975. ?1 976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N. Y. 10011. No parr of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, micro filming. recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 1 7 Fig. 1. Periodicity cell: 1, 2, 3) cells with con- trol and safety rods; auxiliary absorbers; and fuel assemblies, respec- tively. 7. Measurement of the energy-release fields in the cold unpoisoned reac- tor. 8. Bringing of the reactor to the minimum level of power, controlled by the standard control and safety system. The necessity for experiments (in comparison with the reactor of the first unit) originates by the difference in the number of .technological param- eters affecting the physics of the reactor. In particular, to these parameters may be referred the density of the graphite (1.67 g/cm3 in comparison with 1.73 g/cm3 in the first unit), the average charge with respect to 235 U in the - fuel assemblies and the difference in the boron content in the auxiliary ab- sorbers, etc. Comparative experiments during loading, even at the initial stage of the physical startup, permitted those changes to be forceast which must be carried out in the total reactor charge, in order to ensure the re- quired reserve of reactivity and distribution of the energy-release field. Preparation of the Reactor for Start-up Before starting to charge the fuel assemblies and auxiliary absorbers, the following operations were carried out: The multiple forced circulation loops and the control and safety rods were flushed and pressurized. Running-in of all main circulatory pumps (MCP) and the pumps of the control and safety rod loop. During operation of all the main circulatory pumps, the multiple forced circulation loops and the graphite brickwork of the reactor were heated up. to 150?C over two days, and after heating up the graphite brickwork was cooled to room temperature. The monitoring, system for the integrity of the technological channel (MITC) was put into operation. The regular and temporary control and safety rods were put into operation. The through-channel water-flooding system was prepared. The loudspeaker connection between the central hall and the modular control panel (MCP) was made ope rational. The system for filling the multiple forced-circulation loop with water from the emergency feed pump (EFP) tank was flushed and prepared for operation. The drainage reservoirs were prepared for receiving water. The general exchange and special ventilation systems were brought into operation. The entire assembly of auxiliary absorbers was installed, with a ratio of inserts of boron steel and stainless steel of 3 :1 in the central section, of length 500 cm and 1 : 2 at the end sections with a length of up to 100 cm. A complete set of fuel assemblies with openings below the interzone sensors and 100fuel assemblies were installed. Charging of the Reactor. Comparative Experiments During charging of the reactor, its control and safety systems were implemented, just as in the reac- tor of the first unit, with instruments of the temporary control and safety rods in the presence of a neutron source in the zone. The first critical charge without auxiliary absorbers and the rods of the regular control and safety system in the absence of water in the multiple forced-circulation and the control and safety loops, contained 24 fuel assemblies (Fig. 2) and with the temporary control and safety rods withdrawn Keff was 1.00096 (23 fuel assemblies and Keff = 1.0050 for the reactor of the first unit). Further charging of the reactor was carried out with respect to the periodicity cells (12 fuel assemblies, two auxiliary absorbers, and two control and safety rods). After charging 77 periodicity cells (916 fuel assemblies and 154 auxiliary absorbers), charge No. 2 was brought to the critical state. Further, the critical state was recorded for charges con- taining 1437 fuel assemblies and 239 auxiliary absorbers, and 1452 fuel assemblies plus 239 auxiliary Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 TABLE 1. Some Results of Comparison Experiments during Physical Start-Up of the Reactors of the First and Second Units of the Leningrad Nuclear Power Station Reactor condition o p No. of control and safety rods in- FA AA 3 0 $ serted in core o z ~ ' Keff i a ao c N ~~ I i w d a u y I H OR MR AR SRA ~ y yw0 y C C ro d ' S ~' 3 o ~ o ~ c d O a v n ? ~ I. n o 0 0 6 3 1 23; 24 t No. - No No - - - - 1,0050; -i,0 1.00096 2 916 154 n ? 8; - 56; 56 4; -- - 1.00000; ? +111 1,00064 3 1437 Yes 939 Yes ? 13; 8 89; 89 12; 12 20; 20 1 .00034; -0,33 1,00016 4 1452 239 Yes 10; 1 89; 85 i 9; 12 21; 20 1.00000; --0.5 1 1 1,0032 *OR) overcompensation rods; MR) manual control rods; AR) automatic control rods; SRA) shortened rod-absorbers. tHere, and in future, the first and second figures are for the first and second units, respectively. X 51 50 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 37 3635 34 33 32 31 32 27 26 0 0 0 0 0 i ii ii i 11 11 11 1 11 0 1 01 1 0 0 0 b 0 ! Ole! 1 o c o '{ o MR o OR o s. o o a ER% ""~ ,, .' ER a o o [,/.I s o 0 b M %MR b o o:. . 0T - 0 0 d ER ER a o o o' '/,' R ol 0 M o f o i s o e o b 0 10, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 absorbers. Similar charges were brought to the critical state in the reactor of the first unit. For the charges containing 1437 fuel assemblies and 239 auxiliary absorbers, the effect of reactivity on the filling with water of the multiple forced- circulation loop was measured by means of a reactimeter; as in the reactor of the first unit, this was found to be +1.913.* The results of the comparative .experiments obtained during the physical startup of the reactors of the first and second units are shown in Table 1. The difference in the effective multiplication factor Keff was determined in the following way. An identical sequence for withdrawing the control and safety rods was adopted for both reactors on reaching the cri- tical state. By measuring the efficiency of the control and safety rods, amounting to the difference in the compensation position, the difference in Keff was determined. It follows from Table 1 that all the charges investigated for the reactor of the second unit have a lower reactivity. The difference in Keff varies from 0.33 to 1.1%. 7~4 Fig. 2. No. 1 charge and diagram of the disposition of the sensors and the temporary control and safety rods: 1, 2) cells with charged fuel assemblies and uncharged channels; 3) cells with regular control and safety rods; 4) cells with sensors: a) galvanometers (G1, G2, and G3), b) reactimeters (PIR-1 and PIR-2), c) counter-trigger devices (SPU-1 and SPU-2), d) power pen recorder (EPPV), e) scram rod boosters (UA-9-1 and UA-9-2), f) scram- rod velocity instruments (UZS-1 and UZS-2); 5, 6) cells under temporary con- trol and safety rods; S) neutron sources; MR) manual control rods; ER) emer- gency shutdown rods. Effect of Various Parameters The core structure of the reactor of the second unit, in accordance with the physical start-up program, was specified by the identical core of the first unit. The differences which appeared during the physical start-up of the second reactor necessitated calculations to be carried out in order to assess the effect of deviations of the various parameters on the multi- plication properties. The results of the calculations are shown in Table 2. Analysis of the deviations from the nominal values of the mass characteristics of the fuel in the fuel assemblies, the graphite purity, and the content of boron in the auxiliary ab- sorbers, showed that all these factors can be eliminated from those significantly affecting the multiplication properties. On contrary, a change of graphite density affects not only the multiplication properties but also the diffu- Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 TABLE 2. Effect of Deviations of Various Parameters on the Multiplication Properties of the RBMK Reactor Core Nominal value of parameter Devia. from nominal value assumed in calculation Uranium enrichment 1.787% +0.01% +0.18 Fuel density 9.30 g/cm3 +0.1 g/cm3 +1.32 Graphite density 1.67 g/cm3 +0.1 g/cm3 -0.31(-7.1 for AMZ/ M2)t Absorption cross section of graphite 4.2 mbar +0.1 mbar -0.13 Boron content of auxiliary absorbers 2.0% +0.1% I -0.02 *Values of AK00/K.are given for the reactor, with water in the multiple forced -circulation loop. tM2 = L2 + T. also their overflow to the control and safety rods and the auxiliary absorber rods. Calculations by the QUAM-2 program showed that a reduction of the graphite density led to the follow- ing losses of reactivity for the charges being compared (see Table 1): Charge No. 1 - 0.96% (- 1.0%,,); Charge No. 2 - 0.91% Charge No. 3 - 0.33% (- 0.33%); Charge No. 4 - 0.31%r (- 0.50%). The experimental data are shown in the brackets. Thus, the calculations confirm that a reduction of reac- tivity in the reactor of the second unit is mainly due to the reduction of the graphite density. However, ac- cording to the calculations, this does not lead to a noticeable change of the depth of burnup in view of the increased plutonium production. Formation of the Initial Reactor Charge The reduction of reactivity which appears in the reactor of the second unit is compensated mainly by substituting 9 auxiliary absorbers by fuel assemblies. Moreover, the interchange of several peripheral auxiliary absorbers was effected, which gave rise to certain difficulties in the case of rechargings during operation of the reactor of the first unit. In contrast from the first unit, auxiliary absorbers were installed on the periphery in the lattice of the control and safety rods which, in this region are disposed approximately twice as sparsely as at the center of the core. It was decided not to load eight channels on the periphery of the reactor as, according to calculations, the installation of fuel assemblies in them leads to an increase of nonuniformity of the power release. As a result of rearrangements and transfers, the initial charge for the reactor of the second unit was defined: 1455 fuelassemblies, 230 auxiliary absorbers,and 8 uncharged channels. The critical state of the initial charge (the multiple forced-circulation loop and the control and safety loop filled with water) was achieved by the insertion in the reactor of 89 manual control rods, 12 automatic control rods, 21 shortened rod-absorbers, and 10 overcompensation rods. 21 emergency shutdown rods and 26 overcompensation rods were withdrawn. With this situation of the control and safety rods, Keff = 1.00077, the temperature of all core elements was -20?C and the reactor power was -1.4 kW. Experiments on the Initial Reactor Charge One of the problems of the physical start-up is to determine the basic physical characteristics of the reactor, necessary for its future operation. For this purpose, in the initial charging of the reactor the effects of reactivity were measured with dry cooling loops of the control and safety rods, fuel assembly channels (estimation of the "steam" effect of reactivity in the cold state), the multiple forced-circulation loop, and with installation of the interzone monitoring sensors. At the same time, the total efficiences of the inserted control and safety rods (estimation of the re- serve of reactivity of the cold unpoisoned reactor) and of the withdrawn control and safety rods were deter- mined. All negative reactivity effects were measured with a reactimeter during the introduction of reactivity into the critical reactor. The efficiency of the inserted control and safety rods was measured by their suc- cessive withdrawal from the critical reactor. If the efficiency of a single rod exceeded 0.30, then the Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 TABLE 3. Experimental and Calculated Data for the Initial Reactor Charge Effect of reactivity with: dry channels with fuel assemblies dry channels with auxiliary absorbers dry multiple forced -circulation loop dry control and safety loop installation of 117 sensors for monitoring the radial neutron field Total efficiency: of inserted control and safety rods of withdrawn control and safety rods Nonuniformity factor: of radial neutron field of neutron height field -0.42% -0.43% -1.60% -1.1 W/o -2.02% -1.621o Compensated by the insertion of 13 controland safety rods -0.006% 8.9% 7.3/0 1.9% 1.6% 2.04 ? 1.94* 1.37 2.45% *Obtained on fuel assemblies in which measurements were carried out by fission chambers. tFor all fuel assemblies of the reactor. measurements were carried out by the overcompensation method. Dehydration of the control and safety loop was carried out in the subcritical state. The relative power release field in the initial reactor charge was measured with small-sized fission chambers. At the same time, five independent measurement channels, in the corresponding way to the com- muted channels, participated in the measurements. The measurements were made at eight points with re- spect to height in 144 fuel assemblies, having at the center dry channels for the fission chambers. The quality of the relative measurements, carried out twice at several points, has a mean-square error of 1.6%. The absolute thermal neutron flux'1T was determined by the activation of gold foils in and without cadmium. The absolute power of the fuel assemblies, in which the absolute thermal neutron flux was measured, was determined from the relation iDT VT0/T 1/n/4 a10fN5kr,k1 WT 3.1.1010kT where T is the neutron temperature at the point of location of the indicator; T0 = 293?K; 7 of is the fission cross section of 235U when T = To; N5 is the number of 235U nuclei in the fuel assemblies; kr is a factor which takes into account fission by resonance neutrons; kl is the deviation of the neutron flux measured by the fission chambers and averaged over the height, from the neutron flux at the site of irradiation of the indicator; and kT is the ratio of the neutron flux at the point of measurement to the average neutron flux in the fuel. The reactor power was determined from the formula Qe M WT i-1 Qi, Wp e It QT I Qp i-1 where QT is the relative power of a fuel assembly, measured by the fission chamber, the absolute power n of which was determined by gold activation; Qi is the summed relative power of the fuel assemblies, mea- i=1 n in sured by the fission charrbers; E Qip and QP are the total relative powers, calculated for the fuel as- i=[ i=1 semblies n in which the fission chamber measurements were made, and all fuel assemblies m respectively. All critical charges, and also the measured power release fields, were computed by the BOKR-COB and QUAM-2 programs, which describe channel-wise the structure of the core. Moreover, the experimen- tal efficiency of the control and safety rods was computed by the BOKR-COB program. Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9  Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070002-9 The BOKR-COB program is a development of a program [2, 3] based on the solution of the diffusion equations of a reactor by a finite-difference method in x-y geometry (for the cross section of the reactor). In the program, the two-group diffusion equations of a reactor consisting of heterogeneous square cells are solved. The nodes of the reference mesh coincide with the centers of the channels. It was shown by the calculations of the experiments carried out on critical assemblies, and also on the reactor of the first unit of the Leningrad Nuclear Power Station, that such an arrangement of the reference nodes is more prefer- able than in the angles of elementary cells. The nonunifo